Résumé : La thèse proposée aborde le problème du développement de la coopération au sein des équipes de travail. La recension des écrits fait ressortir qu'elles sont typiquement confrontées à des difficultés communicationnelles, des problèmes de méfiance et des jeux de pouvoir. Ces difficultés minent leur coopération. Or, les stratégies usuelles pour favoriser la coopération--la laisser émerger, l'enseigner, prescrire des méthodes, comportements et attitudes la favorisant ne permettent pas de répondre à la question suivante : comment peut-on développer la coopération au sein d'une équipe? Cette recherche propose un modèle systémique du développement de la coopération. II emprunte des notions à différents domaines : la communication, la dynamique de la confiance, les processus cognitifs, la dynamique des groupes et la théorie sociale de l'apprentissage. Considérant l'étendue des domaines investigués, la validation complète du modèle excédait les objectifs d'une recherche doctorale. Néanmoins, l'étude sur le terrain, s'apparentant à une recherche-action, a permis d'amorcer sa validation. Ainsi, l'efficacité du modèle à comprendre en quoi l'intercompréhension est une difficulté importante et comment la stratégie de négociation de sens aide à la contrer, ont pu être validées. De même, il ressort que la légitimité de participation des membres semble influencer leur confiance, encourager la découverte de leurs identités, favoriser les apprentissages en matière de coopération. Le modèle développé pourrait être utile à un praticien désirant développer la coopération dans une équipe de projet. II peut aussi être utile à la formation, de même que pour entreprendre de nouvelles recherches. // Abstract : This thesis addresses the problem of the development of cooperation within the work teams. The literature review emphasizes that they are typically confronted with communication difficulties, problems of mistrust and power games. These difficulties undermine their cooperation. However, the usual strategies to support the cooperation (to let it emerge, teach it, to prescribe methods, behaviours and attitudes support) do not allow answer the following question: how can one develop the cooperation within a team? This research proposes a systemic model of the development of the cooperation. It borrows concepts from various fields: communication, trust dynamics, cognitive processes, group dynamics and communities of practice. Considering the extent of the investigated fields, the complete validation of the model exceeded the objectives of a doctoral research. Nevertheless, the study on the ground, similar to an action-research, made it possible to start its validation. The findings confirmed the effectiveness of the model to understand in what mutual comprehension is an important difficulty and how the strategy of meaning negotiation helps to counter it. In the same way, it arises that the member's participation legitimacy seems to influence their trust, to encourage the discovery of their identities, to support their apprenticeship of cooperation. The developed model could be useful to a project manager wishing to develop the cooperation in a team. It could also be useful for the formation, just as to begin new research.

Dans les dernières décennies, le présumé déclin de la compétence scripturale des élèves québécois a soulevé les passions. Force est d’admettre que leurs compétences sont lacunaires : tant les rapports du ministère de l’Éducation (Jalbert, 2006; Ouellet, 1984) que les études scientifiques ou gouvernementales (Bureau, 1985; Groupe DIEPE, 1995; Roberge, 1984) révèlent leur incapacité à s’approprier l’écriture. Les TIC pourraient bien faire partie de la solution : on sait pertinemment qu’elles favorisent la réussite scolaire dans certains contextes (Barayktar, 2001; Christmann & Badgett, 2003; Waxman, Lin, & Michko, 2003). Toutefois, modifient-elles le processus scriptural au point d’en faciliter l’apprentissage? Cette question constitue le cœur de l’actuel projet de recherche. Les modèles du processus d’écriture comme celui de Hayes et Flower (Flower & Hayes, 1981; Hayes, 1995; Hayes & Flower, 1980) rappellent que les TIC font partie du contexte de production; à ce titre, elles influencent autant la qualité des textes que les processus cognitifs et la motivation. Elles libèrent notamment des ressources cognitives, puisqu’elles prennent en charge certaines opérations, comme la calligraphie (Daiute, 1983). Partant, le scripteur peut se concentrer davantage sur des tâches plus complexes. Des méta-analyses (Bangert-Drowns, 1993; Goldberg, Russell, & Cook, 2003) attestent que le traitement de texte exerce un effet minime, mais statistiquement significatif sur la qualité de l’écriture. Toutefois, il est associé à des révisions en surface (Faigley & Witte, 1981; Figueredo & Varnhagen, 2006). Rares sont les projets de recherche qui explorent simultanément l’impact du traitement de texte sur plusieurs dimensions du processus scriptural; plus rares encore sont les travaux qui se sont intéressés à ce sujet depuis les années 1990. Pour pallier ce manque, cette thèse de doctorat vise à 1) mesurer l’effet des TIC sur la qualité de l’écriture; 2) décrire l’impact des TIC sur les processus cognitifs de révision et de traduction; 3) mesurer l’impact des TIC sur la motivation à écrire. Pour y arriver, nous recourons à une méthodologie mixte. D’une part, un devis de recherche quasi expérimental nous permet de comparer les scripteurs technologiques aux scripteurs traditionnels; d’autre part, une approche qualitative nous laisse accéder aux pensées et aux perceptions des utilisateurs de l’ordinateur. Les trois articles qui constituent le cœur de cette thèse rapportent les résultats relatifs à chacun des objectifs spécifiques de recherche. Dans le premier texte, nous avons mesuré les effets du traitement de texte sur la compétence scripturale. L’analyse statistique des données colligées nous a permis de dégager une amélioration des performances, strictement en orthographe d’usage. En comparaison, les élèves du groupe témoin se sont améliorés davantage en cohérence textuelle et ont mieux performé en orthographe grammaticale. Le deuxième article propose de faire la lumière sur ces résultats. Nous y étudions donc l’impact des TIC sur le processus cognitif de révision. Ce volet, basé sur une approche qualitative, recourt largement à l’observation vidéographiée. Nous y mettons d’abord en évidence le grand nombre d’erreurs commises lors des séances d’écriture technologiques; nous faisons également ressortir la sous-utilisation du vérificateur linguistique, qui pose peu de diagnostics appropriés ou qui est souvent ignoré des scripteurs. Toutefois, malgré cette sous-utilisation du traitement de texte, des entrevues de groupe font état de perceptions positives à l’égard des TIC; on leur prête des vertus certaines et elles sont jugées motivantes. Ce phénomène constitue le cœur du dernier article, au cours duquel nous tâchons de mesurer l’impact du mode d’écriture sur la motivation à écrire. Nous menons ce volet dans une perspective quantitative. La motivation des participants a été mesurée avec une échelle de motivation. L’analyse statistique des données montre que les élèves technologiques sont motivés intrinsèquement par les technologies, tandis que leurs pairs du groupe témoin sont amotivés. Lors du chapitre conclusif, nous mettons ces résultats en relation, tentant d’expliquer globalement l’impact des TIC dans le processus scriptural. Au terme de notre thèse, nous formulons des recommandations destinées aux praticiens et aux décideurs engagés dans le système éducatif. / The supposed decline of writing skills in Quebecois students’ during the last decades has raised vigorous debates. Admittedly, their competencies show deficiencies. Indeed, reports by the Ministry of Education (Jalbert, 2006; Ouellet, 1984) and research, both scientific and governmental (Bureau, 1985; Groupe DIEPE, 1995; Roberge, 1984), reveal their incapacity to appropriate the writing process. ICT might well be part of the solution : it is a well-known fact that they encourage scholastic achievement in certain contexts (Barayktar, 2001; Christmann & Badgett, 2003; Waxman, et al., 2003). However, do they modify the writing process so as to facilitate its learning? This question is at the heart of the current research project. Writing process models, such as those of Hayes and Flower (1981; 1995; 1980), remind us that ICT are a part of the Context component; as such, they influence the quality of the texts as much as cognitive processes and motivation. They unburden the cognitive process by taking on certain functions such as calligraphy (Daiute, 1983). Consequently, the writer may concentrate on more complex tasks. Meta-analyses (Bangert-Drowns, 1993; Goldberg, et al., 2003) show that the use of word processors has a small yet statistically significant effect on the quality of writing. That being said, they are mainly linked to surface changes (Faigley & Witte, 1981; Figueredo & Varnhagen, 2006). Research projects that explore the impact of word processors on the writing process and its various dimensions simultaneously are rare, even more so since the last twenty years. To satisfy this research gap, the present thesis aims at 1) measuring ICT effect upon the quality of writing; 2) describe ICT impact on the cognitive processes of translating and reviewing; 3) measure ICT impact on motivation to write. To this objective, we utilize a mixed methodology. On one hand, a quasi-experimental design allows for a comparison of technological writers to traditional writers; on the other, a qualitative approach provides access to the thoughts and perceptions of computer users. The three articles that constitute the heart of this thesis relate the results pertaining to the stated research objectives. In the first text, we measured the effects of word processing on the quality of writing. The statistical analysis of the dataset allowed us to observe an improvement in spelling, but not grammatical spelling. In comparison, students of the control group showed improvements in their texts’ logical coherence and grammatical orthography. The second article intends to shed light on these results. The impact of ICT on the cognitive processes of translating and reviewing is studied to that effect. This aspect, which is based on a qualitative approach, is largely based on video observation. First, are highlighted the many errors committed when word processing is used. Then, is underlined the poor use of spell checking tools, that oftentimes provide inappropriate diagnostics or that are simply ignored by users. However, group interviews have shown positive perceptions vis-à-vis ICT, despite their poor use. Indeed, they are considered motivating and their benefits, although recognized, do not seem to have an impact. The motivating factor is at the heart of the last article, which measures the impact of writing methods on the motivation to write. A quantitative analysis is used to that effect. The participants’ motivation was measured using a motivational scale. The statistical analysis of the dataset demonstrates that technological students are intrinsically motivated by ICT, whereas their peers of the control group are amotivated. In the concluding chapter, we put theses results in relation with one another so as to explain the impact of ICT on the writing process as a whole. Lastly, we hope to provide possible recommendations to practitioners and decision makers within the educational system.

The thesis deals with the possibilities of communication skills development for persons with learning disabilities. Problematics of vocabulary acquirement and the associated cognitive processes are of primary interest of the thesis. Part of the work is a proposal of several practical activities for improvement of these fields, all in agreement with the presented theoretical background. Qualitative study on a sample of 5 tenants of a nursing home was conducted. Subsequent analysis revealed that the nature, implementation and orientation of the proposed tasks is suitable for the clients. Recommendations on how to treat the encountered individuals are also presented. KEYWORDS learning disability, vocabulary analysis, vocabulary developement, cognitive processes, communication skills

L’étude de l’apprentissage de l’orthographe vise à analyser les mécanismes cognitifs et les structures le rendant possible. Cette acquisition s’effectue au travers de tâches comme la dictée et la copie, utilisées en recherche et à l’école. Si des modèles propres aux tâches rendent compte des processus de la production verbale écrite, ils n’intègrent pas de dimension comparative. L’objectif de cette thèse est d’examiner comment la dictée et la copie participent à cet apprentissage. Le modèle que nous proposons intègre les deux tâches et les instances mémorielles sous-jacentes. Les performances en dictée d’élèves de C.P. et de C.E.1 ont été analysées selon 4 conditions d’entraînement : aucune préparation, lecture à haute voix, lecture à haute voix et copie, copie seule. Les items utilisés sont soit des mots sélectionnés en fonction de leur complexité orthographique et de leur familiarité ou leur fréquence, soit des pseudomots de complexité variable. Globalement les expériences 1, 2, 3 font état d’effets du niveau scolaire et de l’entraînement. Toutefois, dans l’expérience 4, la supériorité de la copie sur la lecture disparaît : la copie ne serait efficace que si elle est combinée à une lecture à haute voix. Si la copie associée au déchiffrage semble l’entraînement le plus efficace en termes d’apprentissages orthographiques, la présence en mémoire à long terme d’une représentation graphomotrice connectée à la représentation lexicale est envisageable. Ceci expliquerait pourquoi, face à un mot que nous lisons mais dont nous doutons de l’orthographe, nous éprouvons le besoin de l’écrire manuellement afin d’en récupérer la forme orthographique normée. / Studies on lexical spelling acquisition have two aims: analyzing the cognitive mechanisms involved in this learning and understanding the processes on which they are based. Dictation and copying are known to be tasks leading to acquire orthographic knowledge. They are used by teachers and researchers. If some specific task models report on cognitive processes involved in verbal written production, they do not allow to get a comparative vision. This thesis aims at examining dictation and copying in the process of lexical orthographic learning. The model we propose includes the two tasks (dictation and copying) and the different underlying memories. We analysed the productions of children of 1st and 2nd grades under dictation according to 4 training conditions: dictation without training, reading aloud, reading aloud and copying, just copying. Children were asked to produce words or pseudowords. Words were selected according to their orthographic complexity and familiarity or their frequency, and pseudowords were more or less complex. Overall, experiments 1, 2 and 3 point out an effect of both grade and training. But, in experiment 4, copying doesn’t seem better than reading aloud: copying could be efficient only when combined with reading aloud. If the association of decoding and copying seems to be the best training to get orthographic knowledge, one might wonder about the presence of a graphomotor representation linked with lexical representation in Long Term Memory. This presence could explain why we need to write a word when we are sceptical about its spelling.

La cognition sociale, i.e. notre capacité à attribuer des états mentaux à autrui et à identifier ses émotions, est souvent perturbée dans certaines pathologies telles que le traumatisme crânien (TC). Cette capacité est traditionnellement évaluée à l’aide de tâches sous format « papier-crayon » n’impliquant pas le participant dans une situation d’interaction sociale. Pourtant, la cognition sociale est fondamentale dans nos interactions sociales car elle nous permet de comprendre le discours et le comportement d’autrui. Ainsi, dans ce travail de thèse, nous avons évalué les capacités d’attribution d’états mentaux et de reconnaissance émotionnelle de personnes ayant subi un TC à l’aide de tâches les impliquant activement dans une situation de communication (tâche de communication référentielle et tâche EViCog), ce qui n’a jamais été fait dans cette pathologie. La tâche EViCog (Evaluation de la cognition sociale en interaction virtuelle), créée pour cette étude, permet d’avoir des conversations audio-visuelles avec des humains virtuels, qui expriment des émotions et produisent du discours nécessitant d’inférer leurs états mentaux. Les résultats ont montré que les difficultés des personnes TC étaient encore plus importantes pour la tâche en situation d’interaction (tâche EViCog) par rapport à des tâches traditionnelles au format « papier-crayon ». Par ailleurs, en situation d’interaction, les performances de cognition sociale semblent dépendre en partie des capacités mnésiques (mémoire autobiographique et du contexte), ainsi que des fonctions exécutives, alors que pour les tâches traditionnelles, les performances ne seraient expliquées que par certaines capacités exécutives. / Social cognition, i.e. the ability to attribute mental states to others and to identify emotions, is often impaired in various pathologies, such as traumatic brain injury (TBI). This ability is traditionally assessed with “paper-and-pencil” tasks that do not involve the participant in a social interaction situation. However, social cognition is central in our daily social interactions, as it helps us understand others’ speech and behavior. Thus, in this study, we assessed mental state attribution and emotion recognition abilities of TBI participants, using tasks that involve the participant in a communication situation (referential communication task and EViCog task). The EViCog task (social cognition evaluation in virtual interaction), designed for this research, provides audio-visual conversations with virtual humans, which express emotions and produce speech requiring mental state inference. The results showed that the difficulties of the TBI participants were even more important for the task in interaction situation (EViCog task) compared to traditional tasks in paper-and-pencil format. Moreover, in interaction situation, social cognition performance seemed to rely on mnemonic abilities (autobiographical memory and context memory), and on executive functions, while for traditional tasks, performances were only explained by some executive abilities.

Les grammaires de construction postulent l’émergence progressive des structures du langage via l’utilisation de processus cognitifs généraux. Les hypothèses théoriques qui en émanent suggèrent que la complexité et la structure des formes morphosyntaxiques ne peuvent s’expliquer que dans une perspective constructiviste, où l’enfant développe ses nouvelles formes en complexifiant et en généralisant ses propres productions antérieures. Ces hypothèses ont été éprouvées auprès de populations présentant un développement typique du langage (DTL) mais ont peu fait l’objet d’une mise en application auprès d’enfants avec troubles spécifiques du langage (TSL). Or, ces théories offrent de nouvelles perspectives théoriques permettant de mieux appréhender leurs difficultés langagières. Ces enfants présentent un manque de productivité syntaxique ainsi qu’une plus grande dépendance à l’input linguistique, allant dans le sens d’un manque de généralisation des schémas de construction. Nous suggérons que, contrairement aux enfants avec DTL, l’abstraction des schémas de construction des enfants avec TSL serait entravée en raison d’un mécanisme de généralisation qui se mettrait en place plus lentement. Ce travail de thèse a pour objectif de tester cette hypothèse chez les enfants avec TSL, en s’intéressant plus particulièrement au rôle du mapping analogique. Les résultats obtenus sont prometteurs et compatibles avec cette hypothèse. Si l’étude du mapping analogique comme facteur à l’origine des difficultés des enfants avec TSL est particulièrement séduisante, de nombreuses pistes restent à explorer pour appuyer davantage notre hypothèse. / Construction grammars argue that language structures progressively emerge thanks to the use of general cognitive processes. Theoretical hypotheses suggest that complexity and structure of morphosyntactic forms can only be explained in a constructivist perspective in which children develop their new forms by making more complex and generalizing their own prior utterances. These hypotheses have been already tested with children with typical language development (TLD) but few studies were interested in children with specific language impairment (SLI). These hypotheses give new interesting theoretical perspectives for apprehending their language disorders better. Children with SLI present a lack of syntactic productivity and a more important input dependency. These observations are compatible with the hypothesis of a lack of generalization of construction schemas. Consequently, the children’s abstraction of construction schemas would be slowed down compared to children with TLD’s abstraction. The current doctoral thesis studies the hypothesis of a lack of generalization in children with SLI by analyzing more particularly the role of analogical mapping. The results obtained are promising and in agreement with our hypothesis. If studies about the role of analogical mapping as a factor explaining the disorders in children with SLI are attractive, other considerations have still to be explored for strengthening our hypotheses.

O Transtorno de Déficit de Atenção e Hiperatividade (TDAH) é um dos transtornos de maior prevalência na infância e adolescência. Pesquisas recentes demonstram que, ao menos do ponto de vista cognitivo, existem diferenças importantes no desenvolvimento de crianças com TDAH quando comparadas com crianças sem qualquer diagnóstico psiquiátrico. O presente trabalho pretende contribuir para o campo de pesquisa sobre o TDAH, buscando uma compreensão mais dinâmica deste transtorno, ultrapassando o nível descritivo dos sintomas, incorporando aspectos da Psicologia do Desenvolvimento. Acreditamos que a teoria de Piaget acerca do desenvolvimento psicológico, do processo de transição do estágio pré-operatório para o estágio operatório concreto de desenvolvimento, é um subsídio teórico importante para a compreensão deste transtorno, em especial a construção operatória da noção de tempo. A hipótese geral foi a de que crianças com TDAH apresentariam déficits no desenvolvimento de noções operatórias, como a conservação, reversibilidade e apreensão temporal. Foram entrevistadas 62 crianças, com idades entre 6 a 12 anos, subdividas em dois grupos: uma amostra clínica de crianças diagnosticadas com TDAH (n=32), e uma amostra de crianças sem diagnóstico (grupo controle, n=30). A amostra clínica foi também dividida entre crianças que faziam uso de metilfenidato, e crianças não medicadas, com o intuito de observar se a medicação exerceria alguma influência no desempenho das crianças em provas piagetianas. Para a composição dos grupos, foi utilizada a K-SADS-PL, elaborada segundo os critérios do DSM-IV. Com o objetivo de avaliar os níveis de desatenção e hiperatividade, os pais e/ou responsáveis responderam a dois questionários: a versão abreviada do questionário de Conners, e o Inventário dos Comportamentos de Crianças e Adolescentes entre 6 e 18 anos (CBCL). Tendo como referência a entrevista clínica de Piaget, foram aplicadas as seguintes provas piagetianas: Conservação das quantidades discretas; Mudança de critério dicotomia; as provas de Sucessão dos Acontecimentos Percebidos e da Simultaneidade, e O tempo da ação própria e a duração interior. Os resultados demonstram haver diferença estatisticamente significativa entre o desempenho das crianças dos diferentes grupos, para as provas piagetianas como um todo (p < 0,001), e, quando analisadas separadamente, para as provas de Conservação de Quantidades Discretas (p = 0,003), Simultaneidade (p = 0,004), e O tempo da ação própria e a duração interior (p < 0,001). Crianças com TDAH apresentaram uma tendência a terem suas respostas classificadas em níveis inferiores ao esperado, quando comparadas ao grupo controle. Em relação ao uso do metilfenidato na amostra clínica, não foi observada diferença significativa entre os grupos. Apesar importante no tratamento, o metilfenidato não demonstrou ser suficiente para potencializar o desenvolvimento cognitivo de crianças com TDAH, superando os déficits observados. Esses achados corroboram a hipótese de déficit na aquisição das noções operatórias em crianças com TDAH. Assim, são necessárias novas reflexões a respeito do TDAH, considerando alternativas de intervenções que considerem os déficits observados, ultrapassando o tratamento medicamentoso. / Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is one of the most prevalent disorders in childhood and adolescence. Recent research shows that, at least from a cognitive level, there are important differences in the development of children with ADHD when compared with children without any psychiatric diagnosis. This work aims to contribute to the field of research on ADHD, seeking a more dynamic understanding of this disorder, surpassing the descriptive level of symptoms, incorporating aspects of Developmental Psychology. We believe that Piaget´s theory about the psychological development, the process of transition from pre-operative stage to concrete operative stage of development, is important for the theoretical understanding of this disorder, especially the construction of the operative notion of time. The general hypothesis was that children with ADHD present deficits in the development of operational concepts, such as conservation, reversibility and temporal seizure. Sixty two children, aged 6 to 12 years, were interviewed, and subdivided into two groups: a clinical sample of children diagnosed with ADHD (n = 32) and a sample composed by children without diagnosis (control group, n = 30). The clinical sample was divided between children who made use of methylphenidate, and children non-medicated, in order to see if the medication did some influence on the children´s performance in piagetian tasks. For the composition of groups, the K-SADS-PL was utilized, prepared according to the DSM-IV criteria. To assess the levels of inattention and hyperactivity, the parents and / or guardians answered two questionnaires: Conners´ Abbreviated Parents Rating Scale, and the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL). According to the Piaget´s clinical interview, the following tasks were applied: Conservation of discrete quantities; Change of criteria - dichotomy; the tasks Succession of Events Perceived; Simultaneity, and The time of the action and the internal duration. Results show statistically significant differences between the performance of children from different groups, for piagetians tasks as a whole (p <0001) and, when analyzed separately, for the tasks Conservation of Discrete Quantities (p = 0003), Simultaneity, (p = 0004), and The time of the action and the internal duration. (p <0001). Children with ADHD showed a tendency to take their responses classified at levels lower than expected when compared to the control group. Regarding the use of methylphenidate in the clinical sample, there was no significant difference between groups. Although necessary of treatment, methylphenidate has not be sufficient to enhance the cognitive development of children with ADHD, overcoming the deficits observed. These findings support the hypothesis of deficits in the acquisition of concepts operative in children with ADHD. This calls for new thinking about the ADHD, considering alternatives for interventions that consider the deficits observed, surpassing the drug treatment.

Pesquisas de processo em psicoterapia utilizam categorização de sessões como uma maneira de compreender as relações terapeuta-cliente no contexto clínico, sistematizando a descrição da prática terapêutica e identificando variáveis críticas do processo e o impacto sobre sua efetividade. A presente pesquisa buscou relacionar resultados de categorização (molar) de objetivos analítico-comportamentais, estratégias (molares) para atendimento da criança e comportamentos de terapeuta e cliente (molecular), para análise da interação em sessões de atendimento analítico-comportamental. Participaram duas renomadas terapeutas infantis. Foram realizadas filmagens de oito sessões da díade Alice-Alex, seis da díade Bertha-Bia e de entrevistas com as terapeutas doutoras em análise do comportamento com mais de 30 anos de experiência clínica infantil. As sessões foram categorizadas segundo quatro sistemas, os dois primeiros elaborados na presente pesquisa: (1) Sistema de Categorização de Objetivos Terapêuticos (SICOT), (2) Sistema de Estratégias de Conversas e Atividade Terapêuticas (SECAT), (3) Functional Analytic Psychotherapy Rating Scale (FAPRS) e (4) Categorias do terapeuta e do cliente (SMCCIT), além da categorização do foco da fala (dentro ou fora da sessão). Foram obtidos índices Kappa satisfatórios de concordância entre observadores (K>0,630 em três sistemas, p<0,05 em todos) e realizadas análises de associação entre categorias nominais (chi-quadrado), intra e entre sistemas, e análise qualitativa sobre os dados, relacionando-os com os relatos das terapeutas nas entrevistas. Os resultados indicaram que as terapeutas enfatizaram estratégias diferentes, mas coerentes com o perfil das crianças e seus objetivos: no atendimento de Alex, buscou-se ensiná-lo a relatar, engajar-se em tarefas e seguir instruções como alternativa a opor-se e distrair-se; no caso de Bia, visou-se ensiná-la a se expressar de modo assertivo e aprimorar análises. As estratégias de Alice se basearam principalmente em: (1) fazer tarefas terapêuticas, manejando o comportamento de Alex na sessão, para ensino de leitura e escrita e (2) derivar conversas a partir de brincadeiras e fantasias, manejando o controle verbal para ensiná-lo a relatar. As estratégias de Bertha foram: (1) utilizar fantasia, manejando o comportamento de Bia na sessão, para ensino de outras formas de se relacionar com a família e (2) conversar derivado ou paralelo ao brincar e fantasiar, manejando o controle verbal para que as análises suplementassem as contingências fora da sessão. Os dois atendimentos tiveram maior porcentagem de interações com foco dentro da sessão, com ênfase em diferentes atividades para favorecer a adesão, manejar os comportamentos diretamente e conversar com as crianças. Discute-se que: (a) o uso dos diferentes sistemas, molares e moleculares, foi essencial para realizar diferentes níveis de análise e combiná-las entre si; (b) o uso de atividades não é terapêutico em si, mas auxiliar de intervenções com uma população cujo desenvolvimento verbal e seu controle por regras ainda é incipiente, em que as atividades auxiliam o manejo dos comportamentos em sessão e das conversas para a promoção do controle verbal. São apontadas algumas questões de pesquisa decorrentes deste estudo e, considerando a experiência das terapeutas, as implicações e questões práticas para a formação profissional em terapia analítico-comportamental infantil / Research process in psychotherapy use categorization of sessions as a way of understanding the therapist-client relationship in the clinical setting, systematizing description of the therapeutic practice and identifying critical process variables and the impact on their effectiveness. This research related the results of a molar categorization of behavior-analytic objectives, a molar system of strategies for treating the child, and therapist and client behaviors (molecular) for analysis of interaction in behavior analytic sessions. Filming was done in eight sessions of Dyad Alice-Alex and six of Dyad Bertha-Bia and of interviews with therapists, doctors in behavior analysis with more than 30 years of clinical experience with children. The sessions were categorized according to four systems, the first two developed in this research: (1) Categorization System for Therapeutic Objectives (SICOT) (2) System of Strategies of Conversations and Activities (SECAT), (3) Functional Analytic Psychotherapy Rating Scale (FAPRS) and (4) Categories of Therapist and Client Behavior (SMCCIT), besides the categorization of the focus of conversation (in or out of session). Satisfactory Kappa rates of agreement were obtained between observers ((K>0,630 in three of those, with p<0,05 in every system)) and correlation analysis was carried out among nominal categories (Chi-square), within and between systems, as well as qualitative analysis on the data, relating them to reports of therapists during the interviews. Results indicated that therapists have emphasized different strategies, but consistent with the profile of children and their therapeutic goals. In Alex case the therapist attempted to teach him to report, engage and follow instructions as an alternative to opposing and distracting himself. In case Bias case the therapist aimed to teach her to express herself assertively and improve analysis. Alices strategies were based primarily on: (1) assigning therapeutic tasks, managing behavior in the session for teaching to read and write, and (2) deriving conversations from fantasy and games, managing verbal control to teach him to report. The strategies with Bertha were: (1) using fantasy, managing the behavior of Bia in the session for teaching other forms of relationships with family and (2) talking derived from or parallel to playing and make believe, managing verbal control so that the analysis of B would supplement the contingencies out of the session. The two treatments had the highest percentage of interactions with focus on the session, an emphasis on different activities to promote adhesion, to manage behavior directly and converse with children. Conclusions: (a) the use of different systems, molecular and molar, was essential to achieve different levels of analysis and combine them together, (b) the use of activities is not therapeutic in itself, but helps interventions with a population whose verbal development - and its control by rules is still incipient. The activities are important for the management of behaviors in session and conversation for enhancing verbal control. Some research questions are raised considering the experience of participating therapists, and practical implications for professional training in child behavior analytic therapy are discussed

Devido à grande discrepância entre os métodos de ensino atuais e a forma como ocorre a atuação profissional do contador, destaca-se a necessidade de estudar métodos que estimulem a interação social e facilitem a cooperação entre os estudantes. Neste cenário, a presente pesquisa dedica-se ao estudo da aprendizagem cooperativa, tema já consolidado no ensino de inúmeras disciplinas de nível secundário, porém recente no ensino superior de contabilidade e com resultados ainda controversos. O objetivo principal é avaliar se a utilização da aprendizagem cooperativa proporciona melhoria na aprendizagem dos alunos de Ciências Contábeis. Para isso, foram escolhidos dois níveis das habilidades intelectuais mais elevadas da taxonomia de Bloom: aplicação e análise. O referencial teórico se baseia na literatura sobre aprendizagem cooperativa, taxonomia de Bloom, estilos de aprendizagem e o problema de gerenciamento de conflitos em grupos conhecido como \"Paradoxo de Abilene\". O experimento foi realizado em uma turma do 1º semestre do curso noturno de Ciências Contábeis da FEA-USP. A amostra inicial era composta por 43 alunos e a final por 36. Os alunos foram divididos em dois grupos: experimental (aprendizagem cooperativa) e controle (aprendizagem individual), utilizando amostragem aleatória estratificada. Os critérios de estratificação foram: 1º) nota parcial em Contabilidade Introdutória; 2º) gênero; 3º) estilo de aprendizagem e; 4º) faixa etária e experiência. Os dois grupos responderam às mesmas questões, porém a turma de controle respondeu individualmente e a turma experimental, em grupos heterogêneos de quatro a cinco indivíduos. Os dados coletados foram analisados utilizando a análise de covariância (ANCOVA) para a categoria aplicação e análise de variância (ANOVA) para a categoria análise. Contrariando as expectativas, os resultados não apuraram diferenças significativas no desempenho dos alunos nas duas categorias. Ao final do estudo, são discutidas as percepções dos alunos sobre a experiência, limitações e sugestões para pesquisas futuras sobre o tema. / Due to the large discrepancy between the current learning methods and how is the performance of the professional accountant, stands out the need to study methods that encourage social interaction and facilitate cooperation among students. In this scenario, the present research is devoted to the study of cooperative learning, a topic already consolidated in teaching numerous courses at the secondary level. However, this is recent in higher education accounting and the results are still controversial. The main objective is to evaluate whether the use of cooperative learning provides improvement in student learning in accounting science. For this, we chose two levels of higher intellectual skills of Bloom\'s taxonomy: application and analysis. The theoretical framework is based on the literature on cooperative learning, Bloom\'s taxonomy, learning styles and the problem of conflict management in groups known as \"Abilene Paradox\". The experiment was conducted in a 1st semester of the night course of accounting from FEA-USP. The initial sample was composed of 43 students and end by 36. Students were divided into two groups: experimental (cooperative learning) and control (individual learning), using stratified random sampling. The stratification criteria were: 1) partial score in Introductory Accounting, 2) gender, 3) learning style and, 4) age and experience. Both groups answered the same questions, but the control group answered individually and the experimental group in heterogeneous groups of four to five individuals. The collected data were analyzed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) for category application and analysis of variance (ANOVA) for category analysis. Contrary to expectations, no significant differences were cleared in the student performance of cooperative learning in relation to individual learning in both categories. At the end of the study, it was discussed the perceptions of students about the experience, limitations are and suggestions for the future research on the topic.

Seres humanos e outros organismos geralmente descontam o futuro, preferindo receber recompensas imediatas a postergadas. Essa tendência comum é compreensível, em grande parte, porque preterir o consumo de benefícios aumenta amplamente o risco de perdê-los. Ademais, a impaciência intertemporal pode ser adaptativa. A reprodução antecipada, em comparação com a tardia, produz em média um aumento na taxa de sucesso reprodutivo. Entretanto, apesar de ser uma tendência geral, o desconto do futuro pode variar transitoriamente em função de estimulações contextuais, especialmente, pistas de oportunidades sexuais. O objetivo do presente trabalho foi investigar fontes situacionais de variabilidade na preferência temporal. Para tanto, foram realizados quatro estudos visando avaliar os efeitos de indicadores de reciprocidade social, elementos arbitrários condicionados e qualidade de recursos limitantes sobre os índices de desconto do futuro, usando: (1) imagens de pessoas do sexo oposto expressando emoções de alegria e nojo; (2) vídeos de pessoas engajadas em entrevistas amigáveis e não amigáveis; (3) cores do ambiente experimental associadas a imagens de pessoas do sexo oposto e (4) imagens de alimentos atraentes e não atraentes. Os efeitos de tais estímulos foram medidos através de uma tarefa que costuma ser usada para avaliar desconto de futuro, formada por dois conjuntos de escolhas monetárias feitas pelos participantes antes e após a estimulação. Cada escolha monetária constituiu de um par de opções entre um valor (x) amanhã ou outro (x + y) daqui (z) dias. Adicionalmente, foram investigadas fontes individuais de variação na preferência temporal. Para tanto, foi realizado um estudo correlacional e transversal usando questionários estruturados, investigando possíveis preditores de desconto do futuro. O intuito foi averiguar as relações entre taxas de desconto do futuro e diferenças individuais, tais como sexo, idade, propensão ao risco e índices socioeconômicos. Os resultados apontam que a tendência ao imediatismo pode ser acentuada em contextos com a presença de cor com comprimento de onda longo associada a estados de excitação, em contraposição à cor com menor comprimento de onda; e diminuída pela exposição a estímulos alimentares com alto valor calórico, em comparação a estímulos alimentares de baixo teor energético. Além disso, o desconto do futuro apresenta correlação negativa com status socioeconômico, podendo este último predizer altas taxas de desconto temporal. Conclui-se que o desconto do futuro pode variar em função da ativação de estados de excitação e de sistemas motivacionais básicos e em resposta a escassez de recursos materiais. Conjuntamente, os resultados são compatíveis com a interpretação de que escolhas imediatistas estão relacionadas ultimamente a maximização da aptidão em determinados contextos; e que a preferência temporal é um processo multidimensional, possivelmente, englobando o funcionamento de diferentes mecanismos voltados para operar em dimensões específicas / Humans and other organisms generally discount the future, preferring immediate over delayed rewards. This general preference is understandable, largely because delaying consumption increases the risk of losing the benefit. Moreover, the intertemporal impatience can be adaptive. Earlier reproduction produces an average increase in the rate of reproductive success than later reproduction. However, although it is a general tendency, the future discounting may vary temporarily due to contextual stimuli, especially cues of sexual opportunities. The objective of this study was to investigate situational sources of variability in time preference. To this end, four studies were conducted to evaluate the effects of cues of reciprocity, conditioned arbitrary contextual stimuli, and quality of limiting resources on the rate of future discounting, using: (1) images of the opposite sex expressing happiness and disgust, (2) videos of people engaged in friendly and non-friendly interviews, (3) colors of the experimental environment associated with images of the opposite sex, and (4) pictures of attractive and unattractive food. The effects of these stimuli were measured using a task that is often used to evaluate future discounting, formed by two sets of monetary choices completed by participants before and after the stimulation. Each monetary choice has two options: a monetary value for tomorrow (x) or more (x + y) in a specified future (z days). Additionally, we investigated individual sources of variation in time preference. For this purpose, a correlational and transversal study was conducted using structured questionnaires to investigate possible predictors of future discounting. The aim was to examine the relationship between future discounting rates and individual differences such as gender, age, risk propensity, and socioeconomic indexes. The results show that the future discounting rates can be increased in the presence of long-wavelength color associated with states of arousal as opposed to short-wavelength color, and decreased by exposure to high-calorie food stimuli compared to low-calorie food stimuli. Moreover, the future discounting shows a negative correlation with socioeconomic status, and that the latter can predict high rates of temporal discounting. It is concluded that the future discounting may vary depending on the activation of arousal state, basic motivational systems, and in response to scarcity of material resources. Jointly, the results are consistent with the interpretation that immediate choices are related in evolutionary terms to fitness maximization in certain environments, and that the time preference is a multidimensional process, possibly comprising distinct domain-specific mechanisms