Syfte - Studiens övergripande syfte är att öka förståelsen för hur ledare inom besöksnäringen i Sverige har agerat under covid-19 pandemin. Studien avser att identifiera ledares arbete med krishantering, krisberedskap och kunskapshantering. Vidare ämnar studien att identifiera centrala ledarskapskompetenser som är viktiga vid krishantering samt identifiera, diskutera och reflektera kring lärdomar och insikter som ledare tillägnat sig till följd av att ha bedrivit ledarskap under osäkra förhållanden. Slutligen avser studien att utveckla ett ramverk för krishantering inom besöksnäringen. Metod - Studien har ett hermeneutiskt synsätt och vill öka förståelsen för vad som är centralt för ledaren vid krishantering inom besöksnäringen i Sverige. Studien baseras på en kvalitativ forskningsmetod och har abduktiv metod. Studiens teoretiska bakgrund grundar sig litteratur och vetenskapliga artiklar. 14 semi-strukturerade intervjuer med ledare från besöksnäringen har utgjort det empiriska materialet. Slutsatser - Studiens slutsatser är att ledaren har en avgörande roll vid krishantering. Ledaren är en bärande pelare vid krishantering, krisberedskap och kunskapshantering. Vidare visar studien att det finns fem ledarskapskompetenser som är centrala för ledaren vid krishantering. Dessa är kommunikation, beslutsfattande, motivation, perspektivtagande och kreativitet. Ledare som dokumenterar lärdomar och kunskap har större rimlighet att tillvarata den tysta kunskapen. Studien visar även att det är viktigt för ledaren att reflektera och analysera för att omsätta ny kunskap till utveckling genom förbättringsarbete. Begränsningar - Studien begränsas då antalet respondenter från besöksnäringen var 14 stycken vilket medförde en större generalisering. Studien begränsades även eftersom många potentiella respondenter avstod från deltagande med hänvisning till tunga upplevelser under covid-19. Därmed kan studien ha en avsaknad av viktiga perspektiv. Originalitet/Värde – Studien bidrar med en ökad förståelse för vad som är centralt för ledare vid krishantering inom besöksnäringen i Sverige och varför det är viktigt. / Purpose - The purpose of this paper is to increase understanding of how leaders in the hospitality industry in Sweden have acted during the covid-19 pandemic. The study intends to identify leaders work with crisis management, crisis preparedness and knowledge management. Furthermore, the study aims to identify central leadership competencies that are important in crisis management as well as identify, discuss and reflect on lessons learned and insights that leaders have acquired as a result of have led under uncertain conditions. Finally, the study intends to develop a framework for crisis management in the hospitality industry. Method - The study has a hermeneutical point of view and aim to increase the understanding of what is central to leaders in crisis management within the hospitality industry in Sweden. The study is based on qualitative research methods and has an abductive method. The study's theoretical background is based on literature and scientific articles. 14 semi-structured interviews with leaders from the hospitality industry have constituted the empirical result. Conclusions - The study's conclusion is that the leader has a crucial role in crisis management. The leader is a supporting pillar in crisis management, crisis preparedness and knowledge management. Furthermore, the study shows that there are five leadership competencies that are crucial for leaders in crisis management. These are communication, decision making, motivation, perspective taking and creativity. Leaders that document lessons and knowledge have greater plausibility to preserve tacit knowledge. The study also shows that there is important for leaders to reflect and analyze to convert new knowledge to development through work improvement. Limitations –  The study is limited as the number of respondents from the hospitality industry were 14, which contributed to greater generalization. The study was also limited due to that several potential respondents declined participation in reference to heavy and difficult experiences during covid-19. There by the study may lack important perspectives. Originality/Value – The study contributes to an increased understanding for what is central for leaders in crisis management within the hospitality industry in Sweden and why that is important.

Syfte: Inflationen i Sverige har stigit hastigt under år 2022 och ligger nu på den högsta nivån på över 30 år vilket gör att många företag kan ställas inför utmaningar. Syftet med detta arbete är att undersöka vilka åtgärder och förändringar privata fastighetsbolag vidtar för att hantera den hastigt stigande inflationen och höjda räntor. Vi vill även undersöka om ledarskapet i dessa organisationer har förändrats på grund av den rådande situationen. Forskningsfrågorna som behandlas i arbetet är: Har fastighetsbolag vidtagit förebyggande åtgärder för osäkra tider? Vilka åtgärder har fastighetsbolag vidtagit för att hantera den höga inflationen och räntehöjningarna? Har den nuvarande situationen förändrat ledarskapet och organisationen? Finns det lärdomar som fastighetsbolag tar med sig från denna tid?  Metod: Denna studie har genomförts utifrån en kvalitativ forskningsmetod med en deduktiv ansats. Åtta semistrukturerade intervjuer har genomförts med individer på chefspositioner inom privata fastighetsbolag. Materialet har transkriberats och analyserats enligt en tematisk analysmetod. Resultatet och analysen presenteras i ett perspektiv om före, under och efter den höga inflationen och räntehöjningarna där frågor om ledarskap, åtgärder, förändringar samt lärdomar behandlas. Resultat och slutsats: Resultatet av empirin visar att vissa fastighetsbolag har vidtagit förebyggande åtgärder för denna typ av situation genom att de bland annat bundit räntor samt sänkt belåningen. För att hantera den höga inflationen och räntehöjningarna har fastighetsbolagen nu en ökad kostnadsmedvetenhet och färre investeringar genomförs. Ledarskapet och organisationen har inte förändrats i fastighetsbolagen men det framgår att ambitionsnivån inte kan vara den samma som innan. Det finns ett mer kundinriktat tänk för att behålla befintliga kunder och det läggs resurser på att hyra ut allt som går. Exempel på lärdomar som tas med är att ha ett långsiktigt synsätt samt att även ha en förståelse för kunderna i denna typ av situation. Examensarbetets bidrag: Arbetets bidrag är att belysa hur fastighetsbolag faktiskt har agerat under denna tid. Resultatet kan vara användbart för andra fastighetsbolag, dess intressenter samt samhället i stort. Förslag till fortsatt forskning: Utifrån arbetets resultat och begränsningar är förslag på fortsatt forskning att studera kommunala bolag, fastighetsbolag i andra län samt att göra samma typ av studie som denna men när inflationen har dämpats. / Aim: The inflation in Sweden has risen rapidly in 2022 and is now at its highest level in more than 30 years, which means that many companies may face challenges. The aim of this work is to investigate what measures and changes private real estate companies take to deal with the rapidly rising inflation and increased interest rates. We also want to explore whether the leadership in these organizations has changed due to the current situation. The research questions addressed in this work are: Have real estate companies taken preventive measures for uncertain times? What measures have real estate companies taken to deal with the high inflation and interest rate increases? Has the current situation changed the leadership and organization? Are there any lessons that real estate companies are learning from this time? Method: This study was based on a qualitative method with a deductive approach. Eight semi-structured interviews have been conducted with individuals in managerial positions in private real estate companies. The material has been transcribed and analyzed according to a thematic analysis method. The results and the analysis are presented in a perspective of before, during and after the high inflation and interest rate increases where issues of leadership, actions, changes and learnings are addressed. Results and conclusions: The results of the empirical study show that some real estate companies have taken preventive measures for this type of situation by binding interest rates and reducing leverage. To deal with high inflation and interest rate increases, real estate companies are now more cost-aware and fewer investments are made. The leadership and the organization have not changed but the level of ambition cannot be the same as before. There is a more customer-oriented approach to retain existing customers and resources are devoted to renting out everything that is possible. Examples of lessons learned are to have a long-term approach and to understand customers in these times. Contribution of the thesis: The contribution of the work is to explain how real estate companies have acted during this time. The results can be useful for other real estate companies, their stakeholders and the society. Suggestions for future research: Based on the work's results and limitations, suggestions for further research are to study municipal companies, real estate companies in other counties and to conduct the same type of study as this one, but when inflation has decreased.

The primary aim of this study is to discover how leadership competencies affect the perceived effectiveness of crisis management. Leadership skills exhibited by public managers in crisis times may help eliminate panic and help victims recover from the difficult situation as soon as possible. The existence of effective leadership in a crisis is one of the most important inputs in order to diminish the harmful effects of crises and disasters. The absence of effective leadership in times of crisis may be one of the most significant problems in the public administration because it may result in loss of human life and property. By answering the following research questions this study provides useable knowledge for public managers and leaders during crises: Are there any different leadership features or characteristics for effective leadership at time of crises than the leadership in normal time? What is the role of effective leadership in managing crises and disasters (natural or man-made)? How do a public administrator's leadership traits and skills impact the effectiveness of crisis leadership? How do a public administrator's leadership behaviors (task-, people-, and organization-oriented behaviors) influence the effectiveness of a crisis leadership? With the aim of revealing these relations, a self-reported survey was sent to 2,095 current and former Turkish public security network managers. The study found that the core leadership competencies (decisiveness, flexibility, communication, problem solving, managing innovation and creativity, team building, managing and organizing personnel, motivating, networking and partnering, decision making, scanning the environment, and strategic planning) have a positive relationship with the effectiveness of crisis leadership. Among three categories of leadership behaviors, task-oriented leadership behaviors were found with the highest level of impact on the effectiveness of crisis leadership. The study indicated the importance of the core leadership competencies in the effectiveness of crisis leadership. According to the results, the hypothesis testing with the covariance structure model supported the positive impact of the core leadership competencies on the effectiveness of crisis leadership. This study contributes to the literature on leadership during crisis situations, and also provides proposals for public managers and practitioners in order to increase their effectiveness in leading their organizations during a crisis situation.

Titel: Ledarskap i kris: Strategier för framgång i byggbranschens VUCA-miljö. En kvalitativ undersökning av VUCA utmaningar och tillämpning av VUCA Prime i en föränderlig värld. Författare: Emma Ahldén & Bosaina Altawel Publicerad: 2024–06–10 Handledare: Michal T. Lysek Bakgrund: Under de senaste åren har världen ställts inför en rad ekonomiska och samhällsmässiga utmaningar, från Covid-19-pandemins påverkan till konsekvenserna av konflikten i Ukraina. Byggbranschen är en av de sektorer som drabbats hårt av den pågående ekonomiska nedgången, vilket har ökat volatiliteten, osäkerheten, komplexiteten och tvetydigheten. Detta har gjort begreppet VUCA allt mer relevant. I dessa tider har krisledning och VUCA Prime blivit centrala verktyg för att hantera dessa utmaningar. Ledarskapet inom byggbranschen är ofta uppgiftsorienterat och traditionellt baserat på makt och auktoritet. Detta har väckt intresse för att identifiera och beskriva de specifika utmaningar som byggbranschen möter i en VUCA-miljö, samt att undersöka hur krisledning och VUCA Prime principerna effektivt kan användas för att hantera dessa kriser. Syfte: Syftet med studien är att identifiera och redogöra för de specifika utmaningar som byggbranschen möter i en VUCA-kontext samt att undersöka i vilken utsträckning och på vilka sätt krisledarskap och principerna i VUCA Prime kan tillämpas för att hantera kriser. Frågeställning: Vilka är de specifika utmaningar som byggbranschens organisationer står inför i en VUCA-kontext? I vilken utsträckning kan krisledarskap tillsammans med principer från VUCA Prime tillämpas för att hantera dessa utmaningar? Metod: Författarna har, genom att stödja sig på befintlig teoretisk kunskap, riktat in sig på specifika områden där ny kunskap kan bidra till att fördjupa förståelsen inom det aktuella ämnet. Genom att använda kvalitativa intervjuer har författarna strukturerat sin empiriska undersökning för att direkt koppla teoretiska koncept till den insamlade data. Slutsats: Studien framhäver att byggbranschen, påverkad av ekonomisk osäkerhet från pandemier och geopolitiska kriser, står inför utmaningar som kräver krisledarskap och tillämpning av VUCA Primes principer. Resultaten visar att ledaregenskaper som flexibilitet, snabbt och noggrant beslutfattande samt tydlig kommunikation är central för att effektivt hantera dessa förhållanden och förbereda för framtida kriser. / Title: Leadership in Crisis: Strategies for Success in the Construction Industry's VUCA Environment. A Qualitative Study of VUCA Challenges and the Application of VUCA Prime in a Changing World. Authors: Emma Ahldén & Bosaina Altawel Published: 2024-06-10 Supervisor: Michal T. Lysek Background: In recent years, the world has faced a range of economic and societal challenges, from the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic to the consequences of the conflict in Ukraine. The construction industry is one of the sectors that has been severely affected by the ongoing economic downturn, increasing volatility, uncertainty, complexity, and ambiguity. This has made the concept of VUCA increasingly relevant. In these times, crisis management and VUCAPrime have become central tools for addressing these challenges. Leadership within the construction industry is often task-oriented and traditionally based on power and authority. This has sparked an interest in identifying and describing the specific challenges that the construction industry faces in a VUCA environment, as well as exploring how crisis management and VUCAPrime principles can be effectively used to handle these crises. Purpose: The purpose of the study is to identify and account for the specific challenges that the construction industry faces in a VUCA context, and to explore the extent and ways in which crisis leadership and the principles of VUCA Prime can be applied to manage crises. Research Question: What are the specific challenges that organizations in the construction industry face in a VUCA context? To what extent can crisis leadership along with principles from VUCA Prime be applied to manage these challenges? Method: By relying on existing theoretical knowledge, the authors have focused on specific areas where new knowledge can contribute to deepening the understanding of the subject. Using qualitative interviews, the authors structured their empirical investigation to directly link theoretical concepts to the collected data. Conclusion: The study highlights that the construction industry, affected by economic uncertainty from pandemics and geopolitical crises, faces challenges that require crisis leadership and the application of VUCA Prime principles. The results show that leadership qualities such as flexibility, rapid and accurate decision-making, and clear communication are central to effectively managing these conditions and preparing for future crises.

H διατριβή συμβάλει στην πολυεπίπεδη και σε βάθος μελέτη της διαχείρισης κρίσεων στο πλαίσιο της δημόσιας διοίκησης. Σκοπός της μελέτης είναι να εντοπισθούν και να αξιολογηθούν οι παράγοντες που επηρεάζουν συνολικά τη διαδικασία της διαχείρισης κρίσεων καθώς και τη λειτουργία των ομάδων διαχείρισης κρίσεων προκειμένου η δημόσια διοίκηση και οι άνθρωποι που εμπλέκονται να είναι όσο το δυνατόν πιο αποτελεσματικοί για να αποφευχθούν κρίσεις ή να μετριασθούν οι συνέπειες της με την σωστή αντιμετώπιση. Δεδομένου ότι η διεθνής βιβλιογραφία είναι περιορισμένη ιδιαίτερα σε ότι αφορά τη διαχείριση κρίσεων στη δημόσια διοίκηση, επιχειρήθηκε να αναδειχθούν με όσο το δυνατόν μεγαλύτερη σαφήνεια αυτοί οι παράγοντες. Η έρευνα στηρίχθηκε σε στελέχη που συμμετείχαν σε ομάδες διαχείρισης κρίσεων από ολόκληρο το φάσμα της ελληνικής δημόσιας διοίκησης σε διάφορες θέσεις ευθύνης. Τα άτομα αυτά συμμετείχαν σε ομάδες διαχείρισης κρίσεων που αντιμετώπισαν σημαντικά ζητήματα όπως ήταν οι Ολυμπιακοί Αγώνες στην Αθήνα το 2004, οι μεγάλες πυρκαγιές το καλοκαίρι του 2007, θέματα εγχώριας τρομοκρατίας και εθνικής ασφάλειας καθώς και δημοσίας υγείας από το 2000 έως το 2009. Για τη μελέτη μας λαμβάνουμε ως δεδομένο, σύμφωνα με τη διεθνή βιβλιογραφία, ότι η διαδικασία της διαχείρισης κρίσεων αποτελείται από τρεις γενικές φάσεις. Τη φάση πριν την κρίση που περιλαμβάνει την ανίχνευση σημάτων έλευσης μιας ενδεχόμενης κρίσης, την πρόληψη και την προετοιμασία αντιμετώπισης της. Τη φάση της κρίσης που περιλαμβάνει τον καθορισμό της κατάστασης ως κρίση και την αντιμετώπισή της και τη φάση μετά την κρίση που περιλαμβάνει την ανάκαμψη και τη γνώση που αποκτάται από την αντιμετώπιση της. Η έρευνα επικεντρώνεται ξεχωριστά στις τρεις φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων εξετάζοντας την αλληλεξάρτηση παραγόντων όπως είναι οι τύποι της κρίσης όπως διαμορφώνονται με τα κριτήρια της δυνατότητας πρόβλεψης και αντιμετώπισης, οι φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων μεταξύ τους, η ικανότητα του ηγέτη να λαμβάνει αποφάσεις σε κρίσιμες καταστάσεις, η συναισθηματική νοημοσύνη του, η ικανότητα των μελών της ομάδας να λαμβάνουν αποφάσεις, ο επίσημος ή ανεπίσημος τρόπος εσωτερικής επικοινωνίας της ομάδας και οι στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας με την κοινή γνώμη. Στη συνέχεια λαμβάνουμε υπόψη ότι και στις τρεις φάσεις προκύπτουν εντάσεις και διαφωνίες μεταξύ του επικεφαλής της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων και μελών της ομάδας έτσι η έρευνα προχώρησε παράλληλα στην μελέτη των παραγόντων που επηρεάζουν την επιλογή από ένα μέλος της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων της μεθόδους διοίκησης της σύγκρουσης του με τον επικεφαλής. Εξετάσθηκαν όλοι οι παραπάνω παράγοντες, πλην των στρατηγικών εξωτερικής επικοινωνίας, αν και κατά πόσο επηρεάζουν στην επιλογή της μεθόδου διοίκησης συγκρούσεων. Δεδομένου ότι δίνεται σε κρίσιμες στιγμές έμφαση σε τρόπους διαχείρισης συγκρούσεων που έχουν ως βάση τη συνεργασία από τις πέντε μεθόδους διοίκησης συγκρούσεων που αναφέρονται στη βιβλιογραφία δεν μελετούμε την επιβολή και την αποφυγή, αλλά τις υπόλοιπες τρεις την ενσωμάτωση την παραχώρηση και το συμβιβασμό. Η μελέτη αντικειμενικών και υποκειμενικών παραγόντων που επηρεάζουν τη διαχείριση κρίσεων σε κάθε φάση αλλά και τον τρόπο που διαχειρίζονται τις συγκρούσεις και τις διαφωνίες σε μια ομάδα διαχείρισης κρίσεων στο πλαίσιο της δημόσιας διοίκησης συμβάλλει τελικά στη διαμόρφωση μιας συνολικής εικόνας τόσο για τη λειτουργία σε μια κρίση όσο και για τη συμπεριφορά των ανθρώπων που συμμετέχουν σε αυτή τη διαδικασία Το γεγονός αυτό έχει ιδιαίτερη αξία αφού οι κρίσεις που αφορούν άμεσα ή απαιτούν έμμεσα την εμπλοκή της δημόσιας διοίκησης έχουν μεγάλο αντίκτυπο σε μια χώρα και τους πολίτες της. Η έρευνα οδήγησε συνοπτικά στα ακόλουθα συμπεράσματα: Οι τρείς φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων, δηλαδή η φάση πριν την κρίση, η φάση της κρίσης και η φάση μετά την κρίση αλληλεξαρτώνται γεγονός που αποδεικνύει ότι η διαδικασία της διαχείριση κρίσεων δεν μια αποσπασματική αλλά μια αλληλένδετη διαδικασία, γεγονός που μας οδηγεί στο συμπέρασμα ότι απαιτούνται και οι τρεις φάσεις προκειμένου να θεωρηθεί η διαχείριση μιας κρίσης ολοκληρωμένη και αποτελεσματική. Ιδιαίτερη αξία έχει ότι η πρώτη φάση επηρεάζει περισσότερο από κάθε άλλο παράγοντα τις επόμενες φάσεις. Επίσης είναι αξιοσημείωτο ότι κάθε κρίση ακόμα και αν έχει αντιμετωπισθεί με τον καλύτερο τρόπο προκαλεί ζημία στη δημόσια διοίκηση και αρρυθμία στη λειτουργία της, όπως διαπιστώνουμε στη μελέτη της τελευταίας φάσης. Επίσης παρατηρήθηκε ότι έχει ιδιαίτερη σημασία η ικανότητα του επικεφαλής της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων να εκτιμά πληροφορίες και να λαμβάνει αποφάσεις σε συνθήκες έκτακτης ανάγκης, ενώ ένα σημαντικό εύρημα είναι ότι η εξέλιξη της φάσης της αναγνώρισης μιας κατάστασης ως κρίση και της αντιμετώπισή της, επηρεάζεται από την ικανότητα των μελών της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων να λαμβάνουν αποφάσεις. Παράλληλα διαπιστώθηκε ότι ο ενδεδειγμένος τρόπος εσωτερικής επικοινωνίας μεταξύ των μελών της ομάδας είναι ο επίσημος. Η εσωτερική επικοινωνία με κανόνες και διαδικασίες επηρεάζει θετικά τόσο τη φάση πριν την κρίση όσο και τη φάση της κρίσης. Αντίθετα διαπιστώνουμε ότι επηρεάζει αρνητικά την τελευταία φάση που ενδεχομένως μετά την κρίση να μην υφίστανται αυτές οι επίσημες διαδικασίες όπως είχαν καθοριστεί την κρίση. Ταυτόχρονα παρατηρούμε ότι η φάση της κρίσης εξελίσσεται καλύτερα αν επιλεγούν από όλες τις στρατηγικές εξωτερικής επικοινωνίας αυτές που εστιάζουν στην υποβάθμιση των γεγονότων, δηλαδή οι στρατηγικές επικοινωνίας που στόχο έχουν να περιορίσουν στην κοινή γνώμη την πεποίθηση ότι η δημόσια διοίκηση φέρει ευθύνη για την κρίση, συμπληρωματικά με τις στρατηγικές ενίσχυσης της εικόνας όπως είναι η υπενθύμιση του καλού παρελθόντος ή η παρουσίαση του οργανισμού ως «θύμα» της κρίσης. Τέλος τα χαρακτηριστικά της κρίσης διαπιστώνουμε ότι επηρεάζουν την εξέλιξη δυο εκ των τριών φάσεων. Τη φάση πριν και τη φάση μετά την κρίση. Προχωρώντας την έρευνά μας σε βάθος και μελετώντας τη διαχείριση των συγκρούσεων μεταξύ του επικεφαλής και του μέλους μιας ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων στο πλαίσιο της δημόσιας διοίκησης διαπιστώσαμε ότι η καταλληλότερη μέθοδος είναι η ενσωμάτωση η οποία προϋποθέτει υψηλό ενδιαφέρον τόσο για ατομικούς στόχους όσο και στόχους τρίτων. Αυτή η μέθοδος διοίκησης συγκρούσεων θεωρείται η πλέον ενδεδειγμένη σε περιπτώσεις διαφωνιών σε πολύπλοκα θέματα που έχουν να κάνουν με στρατηγικούς στόχους και πολιτικές μακροχρόνιου σχεδιασμού όπως συμβαίνει στη δημόσια διοίκηση. Ταυτόχρονα η έρευνα κατέληξε σε σημαντικά συμπεράσματα. Πιο συγκεκριμένα αναδεικνύεται ο σημαντικός ρόλος του επικεφαλής της ομάδας διαχείρισης κρίσεων, αφού τόσο η ικανότητα του να λαμβάνει κρίσιμες αποφάσεις όσο και η συναισθηματική του νοημοσύνη επηρεάζουν σημαντικά το μέλος της ομάδας στην απόφασή του για το ποιά μέθοδο θα ακολουθήσει προκειμένου να διαχειριστεί μια διαφωνία ή μια σύγκρουση μαζί του. Επίσης πολύ σημαντικό εύρημα είναι ότι από τις φάσεις της διαχείρισης κρίσεων, η φάση μετά την κρίση, η δυσκολότερη όπως προκύπτει από την έρευνα μας για τη δημόσια διοίκηση, επηρεάζει αρνητικά την επιλογή δυο από τις τρεις μεθόδους διοίκησης συγκρούσεων. Ενδεχομένως η έντονη πίεση και το βίωμα της αντιμετώπισης της κρίσης ίσως να καθιστά τα άτομα ευάλωτα και να τα οδηγεί στην απόρριψη της οποιασδήποτε ιδέας για σύγκρουση ή διαφωνία με τον επικεφαλής και ενδεχομένως να παρουσιάζουν μια πειθήνια συμπεριφορά. Αντίθετα παρατηρούμε ότι τόσο η φάση της κρίσης όσο και αυτή πριν την κρίση επηρεάζουν την επιλογή διαφορετικών στρατηγικών αλλά με θετικό τρόπο. Τέλος είναι αξιοσημείωτο ότι όλες οι αποφάσεις διαχείρισης μιας σύγκρουσης επηρεάζονται από τα χαρακτηριστικά της κρίσης τόσο ως προς την προβλεψιμότητα όσο και από τη δυνατότητα αντιμετώπισής της. / This thesis aims to provide an in-depth analysis of crisis management in public administration. The purpose of this study is to identify and evaluate the factors that affect crisis management practices and operation of the crisis management teams in order for public administration and the human resources involved to be as efficient as possible and to avoid crises or mitigate their consequences. Since the existing literature on the subject is particularly limited, the author attempted to present a comprehensive analysis of the above factors. The research was based on executives who participated in crisis management teams of a wide range of Greek public administration entities. These individuals participated in crisis management teams that dealt with important events such as the Olympic Games in Athens in 2004, the wildfires of 2007, as well as matters of terrorism, national security and public health during the years 2000 to 2009. In accordance with the international literature, we shall accept in our study that the crisis management process consists of three main phases. The first phase involves: a) detecting early signs of a possible crisis, b) prevention and c) preparation to confront the crisis. The second phase involves determining the situation as a crisis and responding to it. Finally, the post-crisis phase includes the recovery and the knowledge acquired through this process. The research focuses on the three separate phases of crisis management by examining the interdependence of factors such as the types of crisis shaped by the criteria of predictability and response, the phases of crisis management between them, the ability of the leader to make decisions in critical situations, the leader's emotional intelligence, the ability of team members to make decisions, the official or unofficial mode of internal communication in the team and the external communication strategies. It ought to be taken into account that tension and disagreements between the leader of the crisis management team and team members is possible in all three phases. Consequently, the research proceeded to examine the factors influencing the style chosen by a member of the crisis management team in managing the conflict with the leader. External communication strategies excluded, the above factors were examined as to whether they can affect the choice of a conflict management style. In crucial instants, emphasis is given on ways of managing conflicts that are based on cooperation. in view of this and the five conflict management styles referred in the literature considered, we shall study the following three: Integrating, Obliging, Compromising. The study of objective and subjective factors affecting crisis management in each phase and the manner of conflicts and disagreements in a crisis management team, ultimately contributes to a broad perspective for both operating in a crisis as and the behavior of the people involved in this process This is of particular value since crises that directly or indirectly require governmental interference have a significant impact on a country and its citizens. Concisely, the investigation led to the following conclusions: The three phases of crisis management, i.e. the pre-crisis phase, the phase of crisis and post-crisis phase are interdependent, which demonstrates that the process of crisis management is not a fragmentary but an interrelated process. This leads us to the conclusion that all three phases are required for crisis management to be integrated and efficient. It is noteworthy that the first phase greatly affects the two subsequent phases. and that every crisis, even if treated in the optimum way, poses significant burden to the administration, as we gather from the study of the last phase. What is more, it was observed that the ability of the leader of a crisis management team to assess information and make decisions in emergency circumstances is of prime importance, while a significant conclusion was that the development of the phase of elevation of a situation to a crisis status and the response to it is influenced by the ability of members of the crisis management group to make decisions. At the same time, it was determined that the appropriate manner of internal communication among team members is the formal one. An internal communication protocol with rules and processes positively affects both the pre-crisis phase and the crisis phase. Conversely, we find that it has the adverse effect in the post crisis phase. Meanwhile, we observe that the phase of the crisis better develops if, from all these external communication strategies, we choose those that focus on minimizing the importance of events, i.e. communication strategies that aim to moderate public opinion that the government is responsible for the crisis, in support of strategies of image boost, such as reminders of prior good performance or presentation of the organization as a possible "victim" of the crisis. Finally, we conclude that the features of crisis influence the development of two of the three phases, that is the pre-crisis and the post-crisis phases. Through further research and by studying conflict management between the leader and a member of a crisis management team, it was realized that the best method is integrating, which involves high interest for both individual targets and goals of others. This method of conflict management is the most appropriate in cases of disputes over complex issues that involve strategic objectives and long-term planning policies as in the case of public administration. Meanwhile, the investigation led to important conclusions. More specifically, the important role of the team leader for crisis management is highlighted, since both the ability to take critical decisions and the emotional intelligence significantly affect the team member in deciding what method to follow in order to manage a dispute or a conflict with him/her. Another very important finding is that among the phases of crisis management, the phase after the crisis, while being the harder it is clear from our research on public administration, also negatively affects the choice of two of the three methods of conflict management. Perhaps the intense pressure and the experience of dealing with the crisis might make people vulnerable and can lead to the mitigation of any urge for conflict or disagreement with the leader and may result to a submissive behavior. Instead, we observe that both the phase of the crisis and that before the crisis affects the choice of different strategies but in a positive way. Finally, it is noteworthy that all conflict management decisions are influenced by the characteristics of the crisis such as the predictability and the ability to influence it.

The main goal of the thesis was to find out why leaders decide the way they do. Using the example of the Cuban Crisis from 1962 I try to analyze the decision making process of the american president John F. Kennedy and the soviet leader Nikita S. Khrushchev. The Cuban Crisis was the most dangerous moment since World War II and the world got to the edge of a nuclear war. The lives of thousands of people were in the hands of the two leaders. Their decision making process was influenced by many internal and external factors and in this thesis I am trying to find out which factors and to what extent had the biggest influence on their decisions.

Bakgrund: Covid-19-pandemin har ställt stora krav på arbetsplatserna. Tidigare forskning visar att organisationer påverkas på många olika sätt i krissituationer. Hur dessa kriser bemöts och hanteras av ledare kan vara avgörande för organisationens framtid. I och med att både ledarskap och kriser är svåra att definiera är ledarskapsrollen i kriser intressant samt aktuellt eftersom vii skrivande stund befinner oss mitt i covid-19-pandemin.   Problem: Den snabba smittspridningen har ställt krav på arbetsplatser som i sin tur påverkatsmycket av detta. Tidigare rutiner och vanor kan inte följas på samma sätt som tidigare vilket kan skapa oro och problem inom företag. Det krävs hantering av situationen med covid-19-pandemin samtidigt som företag måste lyckas utföra sina vardagliga arbetsuppgifter föröverlevnad på lång sikt. Oavsett om den nya vardagen gynnar eller hämmar företag måsteåtgärder vidtas. Ledarna måste använda sina egenskaper för att hantera situationen på bästa möjliga sätt samtidigt som deras egna tankar och åsikter spelar mindre roll när det ställs krav på att saker och ting måste utföras på ett specifikt sätt. Det finns inte mycket erfarenheter som kan användas kring varje specifik kris eftersom en del är helt nya och unika krävs det att ledare är medvetna om vad som skulle kunna uppkomma och hur de ska agera. Ledare behöver besitta olika typer av kompetenser beroende på kris för att lyckas hantera den komplexa situationen som organisationen står inför.   Syfte: Syftet med denna uppsats är att undersöka hur ledarskapets utförande har påverkats undercovid-19-pandemin. Tanken med denna undersökning är att både involvera ledare och medarbetare. Utifrån ledare och medarbetare är målet att skapa en förståelse utifrån deras uppfattningar för att erhålla en tydligare bild på hur ledarskap faktiskt har påverkats av covid-19-pandemin.   Metod: Vår forskningsstrategi var att genomföra en fallstudie för att skapa en större förståelse hur ledarskap påverkas vid krissituationer. I undersökningen används två kvalitativa metoderför att både få en bred och djup förståelse utifrån respondenterna. En avgränsning har gjorts i undersökningen till att undersöka en liten del av Volvo Lastvagnar AB och specifikt hur ledarskapet har påverkats inom denna del.   Studiens resultat: Det är näst intill ingenting som är sig likt jämfört med ledarskapet innancovid-19-pandemin. Det som visat sig vara den största påverkande faktorn på ledarskapet harvarit distansarbete. Trots att ledarna inte upplever att ledarskapet fungerat bra upplevermedarbetarna det vilket visar att de finns olika uppfattningar kring detta område. Undersökningen visar även att det finns olika uppfattningar kring arbetsutförandet. Dessa olika uppfattningar har påverkat avdelningen positivt då det genererat flera nya lösningar på problem som uppstått. Medarbetarna har fått större ansvar för arbetsutförandet vilket har lett till merkreativa lösningar jämfört med tidigare. Genom att ledarna har givit mer ansvar tillmedarbetarna har det visat sig att deras livssituation påverkats positivt genom mer egenplanering av arbetet. / The written language of this paper is Swedish.   Background: The Covid-19 virus has come to demand huge requirements for all businesses. Research shows that different organizations has been affected in different ways during critical situations, how these situations is being answered and handled by the leaders can be crucial for the organizations future. However good leadership and critical situations is hard to define, the role of a leader during crisis is a very interesting subject in this moment when we are actually living during a pandemic right now.     Problem: The quick development around the spread of infection has demanded a lot for companies. Old routines and habits can’t be followed in the same way as before which causes worries inside the company by the employees. Management around the pandemic situation are important and at the same time the company has to proceed and manage to keep their regular work going on and manage to survive at longer terms. Even though this new way of work gains or inhibits the company some measures have to take action. The leaders must use their knowledge to handle certain situations in the best possible way. At the same time their own thoughts and opinions does not play a role in this when the work must be dealt with in a specific way. There is not a lot of experience when it comes to handle a specific crisis because the crises are brand new and unique which means that the leaders have to be beware of what can show up and how to take action for it. A leader needs to have a lot of knowledge around different areas depending on the situation to actually manage the complex situation the organization is facing.   Purpose: The purpose of this essay is to investigate the outcome of how leadership has been affected during the pandemic. The thought of this investigation is to involve leaders for the companies and also the employees. Our target is to create an understanding based on their thoughts on how to keep up a clear view on how good leadership actually has been affected during the pandemic.   Method: Our research strategy was to implement a study that creates a bigger understanding on how leadership affects during a critical crisis. In this investigation we’ve used two qualitative methods to get a wider and deeper knowledge based on the respondents. During this investigation a boundary has been made during the research for a small part of the company Volvo Lastvagnar AB on how specific the leadership has been affected.   The result: It’s basically nothing that is what it used to be when it comes to leadership compared to what it was before the pandemic. The study shows that the biggest element on leadership has been the distance work. The leaders do not believe that their style of leadership is doing great for the company, although if we ask the employees, they think it works which shows that there are a lot of different opinions in this area. The study shows that around during different working situations, there are a lot of opinions that actually affected the company positively because it has generated new and improved solutions on upcoming problems. The employees have been titled with more responsibility during work which has led to more creative solutions compared to earlier. By the bigger responsibility handed out by the leaders, the employees have a more positive feeling when it comes to life in general just because they have their own structure and planning of their work.

Ledarskapet är en viktig del i att skapa framgångsrika och konkurrenskraftiga organisationer där medarbetare mår bra och kan utvecklas (Granberg, 2011). Ledaren är den som har störst inflytande över de anställda då de med hjälp av sitt beteende kan påverka hur medarbetarna tänker och agerar (Granberg, 2011; Jacobsen & Thorsvik, 2014). Därför är det viktigt att första linjens chefer har de förutsättningar som krävs för att kunna utöva en ledarskapsstil som främjar motivation och engagemang, då det är en ledare som arbetar nära sina medarbetare. Chefernas ledarskap och arbetssituation inom äldreomsorgen har i stor utsträckning påverkats av Covid-19 pandemin och de restriktioner som upprättats (Coronakommissionen, 2020).Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur första linjens chefer inom äldreomsorgen upplever att pandemin har påverkat deras förutsättningar att utöva sitt ledarskap. Studien har en kvalitativ forskningsansats och datainsamlingen bygger på åtta semistrukturerade intervjuer. Empirin har analyserats med hjälp av tidigare forskning kring olika ledarskapsstilar.Resultatet visar att linjecheferna upplever en påverkan på både förutsättningar och ledarskap. Ständigt nya riktlinjer och rutiner har krävt ett mer flexibelt ledarskap, och nya arbetsuppgifter har lett till en högre arbetsbelastning. Pandemin har också skapat en stor oro hos både medar-betarna och cheferna, vilket har gjort att behovet av stöd från både organisationen och kollegor har ökat. Samtidigt har övergången från fysiska till digitala möten försvårat kommunikationen med medarbetare och kollegor, vilket i sin tur påverkat möjligheten att ge och få stöd.En slutsats som kan dras av resultatet är att cheferna har behövt kombinera olika ledarskapssti-lar under pandemin. För att kunna stötta oroliga medarbetare och se till att de nya riktlinjerna följs behövs en blandning av ett empatiskt och ett styrande ledarskap. / Leadership is an important part of creating successful and competitive organizations where em-ployees feel good and can develop (Granberg, 2011). The leader is the one who has the greatest influence over the employees as they can use their behavior to influence how the employees think and act (Granberg, 2011; Jacobsen & Thorsvik, 2014). Therefore, it is important that first-line managers practice a leadership style that promotes motivation and commitment as it is a leader who works closely with his employees. Managers' leadership and work situation in el-derly care have been affected by the Covid-19 pandemic and the restrictions that have been established (Coronakommissionen, 2020).The purpose of this study is to investigate how first-line managers in elderly care, feel that the pandemic has affected their ability to exercise their leadership. The study has a qualitative re-search approach, and the data collection is based on eight semi-structured interviews. The em-pirics have been analyzed with the help of previous research on different leadership styles.The results show that the line managers experience an impact on both conditions and leadership. Constantly changing guidelines and routines have required a more flexible leadership, and new tasks have led to a higher workload. The pandemic has also caused great concern among both employees and managers, which has increased the need for support from both the organization and colleagues. At the same time, the transition from physical to digital meetings has made it more difficult to communicate with employees and colleagues, which in turn has affected the ability to give and receive support.One conclusion that can be drawn from the result is that the managers had to combine different leadership styles during the pandemic. To be able to support anxious employees and ensure that the new guidelines are followed, a mixture of empathic and governing leadership is needed.

Background:Sweden is known for having a good infrastructure in health care that enables the medical profession to provide effective patient care. The pandemic struck the world in March 2019 and has since then shown transparency, strengths and weaknesses in the system. Transit zones, modern solutions, and overworked staff have been noticed. The medical teams have been affected and the medical leaders with the right leadership skills have therefore been more important than ever.   Problem statement:The management and leadership structure are interconnected in health care, but there are some distinguishments, like personnel administration and budgeting within management, and vision and inspiration within the leadership concept. Physician leadership is provided in medical teams on wards and this person has two job responsibilities, as a leader and as a specialist. Their job has been greatly challenged these two years with an overloaded system and overworked staff. It has therefore been of great interest to provide good leadership.   Research purpose:The purpose of this thesis is to examine how Swedish physician leaders maintain good managerial power in a complex system and elaborate on the situational theory in health care. This is investigated by interviews with medical professions in different specialties. The findings are expected to contribute additional insights to the previous theoretical framework on contingent leadership. Method:This study has used a qualitative research design by conducting 8 semi-structured interviews. An interpretive paradigm was applied, and the data was supported by the theory which allowed subjectivity from the interviewed. The judgment sampling presented medical professionals that have worked during the pandemic on different wards, but with different amounts and different kinds of experience in health care. A thematic analysis was used for data analysis, providing the research with reflection regarding the professions’ experience of a medical team and the effect the crisis had on it.   Results:The work cycle is coherent for all professions, yet complex and changeable throughout the day. The physician leader is responsible for patient rounds and patient care and must be situational since the job comes with different challenges and work. Communication is deeply important in providing a good environment for team members’ competency improvement, as well as making them feel empowered. The team must have a hierarchy in emergencies and in crises, but it must be neglected in other situations, for example during consultations between a nurse and a physician. Subjective perception of the balance between these two must be present from a leader’s point of view, and health care lacks education on this perspective today. At the same time, the follower must be aware of the team structure in the room and not overestimate their own legitimacy. The professional designated color of the badge is there for the reason; to maintain order.

Covid-19 pandemin har haft stor påverkan på vårt samhälle. I Sverige är restaurangbranschenen av de branscherna som har drabbats värst. Vid en kris som denna krävs det att ledare agerar för att se till att deras organisation kan överleva. En ledare kan påverka organisationen inom alla aspekter, allt från ekonomi till personalhantering. Därav bär ledaren ett stort ansvar på sina axlar. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka hur en kris som Covid-19 påverkar ledarskap inom restaurangbranschen och vilka förändringar som ledare gör för att hantera pandemin. Studien kommer förhoppningsvis att bidra till ökad förståelsen kring hur ledarskap har förändratsunder pandemin Covid-19 och vad det har haft för effekter. Den insamlade datan i denna studie ska förhoppningsvis förklaras med hjälp av tre olika ledarskapsstilar. Studien har genomförts med en kvalitativ metod genom semistrukturerade intervjuer medutvalda ledare inom restaurangbranschen. Resultatet för studien visar skillnader och förändringar som har skett i ledarskapet hos de ledare som har intervjuats. Samtliga intervjuer har tolkats och jämförts med studiens teoretiska ramverk. En kris som pandemin Covid-19 har haft stor effekt på organisationers sammanhållning samt motivation hos medarbetare och har resulterat i ett större mänskligt fokus från ledarnas sida. / The Covid-19 pandemic has had a big impact on our society. In Sweden the restaurant industry is one of the most affected industries. In a crisis like this it is required that leaders act to ensure that the organization survives. The leader is the one who can affect the organization in all aspects, from financial decisions to personnel management. Therefore, the leaders carry a big responsibility on their shoulders. The purpose with this study is to investigate how a crisis like Covid-19 affects leadership within the restaurant industry and what changes leaders have made to be able to deal with the pandemic. This study will hopefully contribute to increased understanding on how leadership has changed during the Covid-19 pandemic and what effects it has had. The collected data in this study will hopefully be explained by three different leadership styles. The study has been implemented with a qualitative method through semi structured interviews with leaders within the restaurant industry. The result of this study shows differences and changes that have taken place in the leadership of the leaders who have been interviewed. All interviews have been interpreted and compared with the study’s theoretical framework. A crisis such as the Covid-19 pandemic has had a major effect on organizational cohesion and employee motivation. This has resulted in a focus directed towards the human factor of the leadership. This study is written in Swedish.