[pt] O presente trabalho objetiva mostrar a natureza não divina de Eros no discurso socrático, a partir da leitura interessada e exclusiva do Banquete de Platão, obra em que o referido autor se concentra no tema do amor. Trata-se de uma sucessão de elogios feitos pelos convivas presentes no evento social, que acaba por descrever a sociedade ateniense; temos o cômico, o trágico, o médico, o filósofo, entre outros, refletindo assim a construção do discurso filosófico a partir dos discursos que o antecedem. Há, portanto, uma filtragem em que Sócrates aproveita ou não alguns aspectos dos discursos anteriores para formatar o seu elogio. Para chegar a tal hipótese, passamos pela análise da concepção grega do amor centrada na questão da pederastia, pela investigação dos vários discursos que correspondem às várias faces do amor, e, por fim, chegamos ao ponto principal, que é a não divindade do Eros para a filosofia, ou ainda, que o Eros não possa ser divino por sua natureza filosófica. Se o divino possui conhecimento e é perfeito, então ele não é condizente com o desejo e a busca filosófica pelo que lhe falta. Porém, ele também não é mortal, mas emana uma força que influencia o mortal. O exercício da filosofia condiciona-se pelo exercício erótico, o Eros que possibilita a atividade da filosofia, a busca de nova perspectiva no comum que está diante de nós, mas sobre o qual não nos debruçamos para refletir e questionar. Eros acende a chama do saber na alma humana, e sem a vontade de saber, a filosofia não é. / [en] This work aims to analyze the non-divine nature of Eros in the Socratic discourse from the reading of Plato s Symposiun, a work in which the author focuses on the theme of love. It is a succession of compliments made by the present guests at the social event of the symposium, which ends describing the Athenian society. There are the lover of oratory, the general, the doctor, the comedian, the tragediography, among others, so that the construction of the philosophical discourse is generated of discourses that precede it.There is, therefore, a filter in which Socrates takes or not some aspects of his previous speeches to format his compliment. In order to reach this hypothesis, we begin by analyzing the Greek conception of love centered on the issue of pederasty; we investigate the various discourses that correspond to the various faces of love; and, finally, we reach the main point which is the non-divinity of Eros according to philosophy. Eros cannot be considered divine due to his philosophical nature. If the divine has knowledge and is perfect, then it is does not match the desire and the philosophical search to what it lacks. But, he is not mortal also: he emanates a force that influences the mortal. The exercise of philosophy is conditioned by the erotic exercise, the Eros that enables the activity of philosophy, the quest of a new perspective in common which stands before us, but on which we concentrate not to reflect and question. Eros kindles the flame of knowledge in the human soul, and without the will to know, philosophy is not.

[pt] Sede de discursos propõe uma leitura do Banquete de Platão que segue como fio condutor a identificação de uma metáfora: o discurso como vinho. A hipótese consiste em postular que há um uso estratégico dessa imagem para descrever a natureza e os efeitos do discurso, lógos, enquanto objeto e modo de expressão do desejo erótico, eros. A dissertação se dedica a mapear o desenvolvimento dessa metáfora a partir de elementos dramáticos e lexicais específicos, representativos do modo como os personagens agem, interagem e se expressam na atmosfera ébria de um sympósion. Interpretado à luz desta estratégia, o Banquete emerge como um diálogo que não apenas se preocupa com as condições filosóficas de emissão e recepção de discursos, mas que dispõe também de um vocabulário teórico específico para as descrever em oposição a outras. Os valores heurístico e hermenêutico da metodologia fundada na metáfora do vinho estão, justamente, na explicitação e contextualização deste vocabulário, que opõe, simultaneamente, dois tipos de desejo e dois tipos de práxis discursiva. Tanto estes quanto aqueles são sistematizados em dois pares dicotômicos: de um lado, um paradigma apetitivo passivo-aquisitivo de preenchimento x esvaziamento; de outro, um paradigma erótico ativo-poiético de falta x inventividade. A diferença entre eles é referente à postura do sujeito desejante frente ao objeto: enquanto o primeiro consome, intro-verte, o segundo produz, extro-verte. Dito de outro modo, é a diferença entre um apetite por discursos e um eros por sabedoria. / [en] Thirst for speeches proposes a reading of Plato s Symposium that follows as a thread the identification of a metaphor: speech as wine. The hypothesis consists in postulating a strategic use of this image to describe the nature and the effects of speech, lógos, as an object and mode of expression of erotic desire, eros. The dissertation endeavors to map the development of this metaphor based on specific dramatic and lexical elements, representative of the way the characters act, interact, and express themselves in the drunken atmosphere of a symposion. Interpreted in light of this strategy, the Symposium emerges as a dialogue that is not only concerned with the philosophical conditions of the emission and reception of discourse, but also has a specific theoretical vocabulary to describe these in opposition to others. The heuristic and hermeneutic values of the methodology founded on the metaphor of wine are, precisely, in making explicit and contextualizing this vocabulary, which opposes, simultaneously, two types of desire and two types of discursive praxis. Both desires and praxeis are systematized into two dichotomous pairs: on the one hand, a passive-acquisitive appetitive paradigm of filling vs. emptying; on the other hand, an active-poietic erotic paradigm of lack vs. inventiveness. The difference between them pertains to the posture of the desiring subject vis-à-vis the object: while the former consumes, intro-verts, the latter creates, extro-verts. In other words, it is the difference between an appetite for speeches and an eros for wisdom.

<p>Orfičko učenje o bogu Erotu. Bog Erot u starogrčkoj mitologiji i njegovo predstavljanje u Hesiodovoj Teogoniji, Sapfinoj poeziji i Aristofanovoj komediji Ptice. Dokazivanje da je Platonov pojam erosa &ldquo;conditio sine qua non&rdquo; filozofije kao filozofije. Doktorska disertacija prikazuje razvoj pojma Erosa iz mitologije i poezije preko interpretacija Presokratovaca do Platonovog pojma erosa. Ovaj pojam je presudno uticao na hri&scaron;ćanstvo kao i na celokupnu filozofiju Zapada. Ključne reči: Sokratov pojam erosa, Platonov pojam erosa, savremene interpretacije pojma, veza antičkih i savremenih interpretacija.</p> / <p>Orfic teaching about god Eros. God Eros at the Ancient mythology and his representation in Hesiod`s Theogony, Sappho`s poetry and Aristophanes`s comedy The Birds. Proving that Plato`s concept of Eros is &ldquo;conditio sine qua non&rdquo; philosophy like philosophy. Doctor&rsquo;s thesis shows the progress concept of Eros from the mythology and poetry through Presocratic interpretations to the Plato`s concept of Eros. This concept is fundamental for the Christianity and for all forms of philosophy in Western World. Key words: Socrates`s concept of Eros, Plato`s concept of Eros,Contemporary interpretations of Concept, Link between Ancient and Contemporary Interpretations.</p>

Although Plato's views on Friendship, or philia, are almost always found embedded in discussions of erotic love, I argue that these views nevertheless constitute a clear and compelling picture of the nature and value of the best kinds of friendship. Moreover, I suggest that these views on friendship present us with a surprising insight into Plato's overall conception of the practice of philosophy, as a personal process of striving for knowledge at the center of the best human life. To tease out these views on philia, I begin with a close reading of Plato's Phaedrus. As many have noted, this dialogue appears at first to be strangely disunified: its first half is concerned primarily with giving an account of erotic love, while its second half is devoted to a discussion of the nature and value of rhetoric. I begin by examining the theory of erotic love presented by Socrates in the 'palinode' at the center of the Phaedrus, and arguing that we can begin to see a theory of philia emerging from this account. I then argue that a central element of this theory of philia, as presented in the palinode to love, provides us with a link to the later discussion of rhetoric, and a unifying theme for the Phaedrus as a whole: the knowledge of souls. With this unifying theme in hand, I return to the account of philia, and eros, in the first half of the Phaedrus and, in light of this topic, draw further conclusions about Plato's views of the importance of philia, and eros, to philosophy. / text

A cisplatina ainda é um dos agentes quimioterápicos mais efetivos. No entanto, em elevadas doses pode ocorrer hepatotoxicidade. Alguns antioxidantes têm sido mostrado amenizar a hepatotoxicidade induzida pela cisplatina mas o mecanismo molecular envolvido não está bem esclarecido.No presente estudo nós investigamos moleculares subjacente ao efeito protetor da dimetiltiuouréia (DMTU), um conhecido eqüestrador de radical hidroxil, contra a lesão oxidativamitocondrial hepática induzida pela cisplatina em ratos. Ratos Wistar machos adultos ( 200 a 220g) foram divididos entre 4 grupos de 8 animais cada. O grupo controle foi tratado apenas com uma injeção intraperitoneal (i.p.) de solução salina (1 ml/ 100g de peso). Ao grupo DMTU foi administrado apenas DMTU (500 mg/kg de peso, i.p., seguido de 125 mg/kg, i.p., duas vezes ao dia até o sacrifício). Ao grupo cisplatina foi administrado uma injeção única de cisplatina (10 mg/kg de peso, i.p.). Ao grupo DMTU + cisplatina foi administrado DMTU (500mg/kg de peso, i.p.), pouco antes da injeção da cisplatina (10 mg/kg de peso, i.p.), seguido por injeções de DMTU (125 mg/kg de peso, i.p.) duas vezes ao dia até o sacrifício ( 72 horas após o tratamento). A hepatotoxicidade foi evidenciada no grupo cisplatina pelo aumento dos níveis séricos de alanina (ALT) e aspartato (AST)aminotransferases. O mecanismo de hepatotoxicidade induzido pela cisplatina mostrou-se envolvido na rigidez de membrana; na redução da razão glutationa reduzida em relação a glutationa oxidada (GSH/GSSG); na redução dos níveis de ATP, GSH e NADPH; na lipoperoxidação; na lesão oxidativa da cardiolipina e de proteínas com grupos fidrílicos. Mais ainda, a morte celular por apoptose foi também demonstrada e os achados fortemente sugerem a participação do xi mecanismo sinalizador mitocondrial neste processo; o DMTU não apresentou nenhum efeito direto sobre a mitocôndria e inibiu substancialmente a lesão mitocondrial induzida pela cisplatina, prevenindo a hepatotoxicidade. Todos os seguintes efeitos induzidos pela cisplatina foram previnidos pelo DMTU: (a) elevação dos níveis séricos de AST e ALT; (b) redução dos níveis de ATP hepático;(c)peroxidação lipídica;(d)oxidação da cardiolipina; (e)oxidação de proteínas sulfidrílicas; (f) rigidez da membrana mitocondrial; (g) oxidação de GSH; (h)oxidação de NADPH e (i) morte celular por apoptose. Os resultados mostraram o papel principal da mitocôndria e dos radicais hidroxilas na proteção do fígado saudável contra a lesão hepática induzida pela cisplatina, delineando um número de etapas que podem ser consideradas no desenvolvimento de futuros agentes citoprotetores / Cisplatin is still one of the most effective chemotherapeutic agents. However, at higher doses hepatotoxicity may occur. Some antioxidants have been shown to ameliorate cisplatin-induced hepatotoxicity but the involved molecular mechanism has not been clarified. In the present study we investigated the molecular mechanism underlying the protective effect of dimethylthiourea (DMTU), a known hydroxyl radical scavenger, against liver mitochondrial oxidative damage induced by cisplatin in rats.Adult male Wistar rats (200 to 220g) were divided into 4 groups of 8 animals each. The control group was treated only with an intraperitoneal (i.p.) injection of saline solution (1ml/100g body weight). The DMTU group was given only DMTU (500 mg/kg body weight, i.p, followed by 125 mg/Kg, i.p., twice a day until sacrifice). The cisplatin group was given a single injection of cisplatin (10 mg/kg body weight, i.p.). The DMTU+cisplatin group was given DMTU (500 mg/kg body weight, i.p.), just before the cisplatin injection (10 mg/kg body weight, i.p.), followed by injections of DMTU (125 mg/kg body weight, i.p.) twice a day until sacrifice (72 hours after the treatment). epatotoxicity was evidenced in the cisplatin group by the increased serum levels of alanine (ALT) and aspartate (AST) aminotransferases. The mechanism of cisplatininduced hepatotoxicity was found to involve membrane rigidification; decreased GSH/GSSG ratio, ATP, GSH and NADPH levels; lipid peroxidation; oxidative damage of cardiolipin and protein sulfhydryl groups. Moreover, cell death by apoptosis was also demonstrated and the findings strongly suggest the participation of the mitochondrial signaling pathway in this process; DMTU did not present any direct effect on mitochondria and substantially inhibited cisplatin-induced mitochondrial injury, therefore preventing the hepatotoxicity. All the following cisplatin-induced xiv effects were prevented by DMTU: (a) elevation of AST and ALT serum levels; (b) decreased hepatic ATP levels; (c) lipid peroxidation; (d)cardiolipin oxidation; (e) sulfhydryl protein oxidation; (f) mitochondrial membrane rigidification; (g) GSH oxidation; (h) NADPH oxidation and (h) apoptotic cell death. Results show the central role of mitochondria and hydroxyl radicals in the protection of healthy liver against cisplatin-induced injury, highlighting a number of steps that might be considered in the development of novel cytoprotective agents.

A produção in vitro de embriões expõe o concepto a condições diferentes do ambiente intra-tubárico-uterino. A alta tensão de oxigênio durante o cultivo in vitro induz estresse oxidativo mediante aumento dos níveis das espécies reativas de oxigênio. A condição de estresse oxidativo altera a expressão de RNAm e miRNAs, podendo comprometer vias de interação materno-embrionária. Recentemente, os exossomos têm sido descritos como um mecanismo complementar de transporte de RNAm e miRNAs, que beneficiam a comunicação bidirecional materno-embrionária. Portanto, além do estudo dos próprios embriões, a análise dos exossomos isolados do meio de cultivo da PIVE também é relevante. Comumente são utilizados dois modelos de cultivo na PIVE, a alta tensão (20%) e a baixa tensão (5%) de oxigênio. A hipótese deste estudo é que a alta tensão de oxigênio no cultivo embrionário gera uma condição de estresse oxidativo que causa alterações de expressão de RNAm e miRNAs presentes nos embriões e nos exossomos. Além disso, o estresse oxidativo exerceria efeito sobre o padrão de secreção destes exossomos. Para testar essa hipótese este estudo produziu embriões bovinos in vitro cultivados em diferentes tensões de oxigênio. Os embriões foram coletados no dia 7 e os meios de cultivo, para isolamento os exossomos, foram coletados nos dias 3 e 7 do cultivo. Os blastocistos cultivados em alta tensão de oxigênio apresentaram um aumentou dos níveis de EROs através de análise de fluorescência. Este resultado validou o modelo de estresse oxidativo para embriões. Os resultados iniciais indicaram que apesar do miR-199a-5p, descrito como possível regulador dos genes alvos ERBB2 e ERBB3, ter apresentado maior expressão nos embriões cultivados em alta tensão, os transcritos ERBB2 e ERBB3 e a proteína ERBB2 não apresentaram diferença significativa entre os grupos. Uma vez que não se estabeleceu uma relação de regulação entre o miR-199a-5p e o gene alvo ERBB2 para os embriões bovinos, este estudo se voltou para a análise de outros 96 RNAm e 378 miRNAs, destes 40 RNAm e 8 miRNAs apresentaram alterações significativas entre os embriões cultivados em alta e baixa tensão de oxigênio. Entre as principais funções alteradas estão associadas à resposta ao estresse oxidativo, proliferação e diferenciação celular, remodelação epigenética, apoptose, metabolismo e reconhecimento materno-fetal. Por fim, com o objetivo de compreender um panorama maior dos efeitos do estresse oxidativo, este estudo se propôs a analisar o padrão de expressão e os miRNAs do conteúdo dos exossomos do meio de cultivo. O estresse oxidativo alterou tanto a concentração dos exossomos quanto a expressão dos mRNAs, em ambos os dias do desenvolvimento embrionário (D3 e D7). Dentre os miRNAs, destaca-se o miR-210 que foi considerado por este trabalho como biomarcador não invasivo da condição de normoxia no cultivo in vitro de embriões bovinos. Em conclusão, esse estudo não elucidou como o estresse oxidativo altera a interação materno-embrionária em embriões produzidos in vitro em diferentes condições de tensão de oxigênio, mas gerou conhecimentos adicionais sobre do desenvolvimento embrionário bovino e os efeitos da alta tensão de oxigênio. / The in vitro embryo production exposes the concept to conditions different from the intra-tubal-uterine environment. The high oxygen tension during in vitro production induces the oxidative stress by increasing the concentration of reactive oxygen species. The oxidative stress condition changes the mRNA and miRNAs expression, it can compromise pathways of maternal-embryonic interaction. Recently, the exosomes have been described as a complementary mechanism of mRNA and miRNAs transport, which improve the bidirectional maternal-embryonic communication. Therefore, the studies of the embryos and exosomes isolated from the IVP culture medium are relevant. Two cultivation models are usually used in IVP, the high tension (20%) and the low tension (5%) of oxygen. The hypothesis of this study is that the high oxygen tension in the embryonic culture generates an oxidative stress condition that causes changes in the mRNA and miRNAs expression. In addition, this oxidative stress is able to modulate the secretion pattern of the exosomes isolated from IVP embryos. To test this hypothesis, this study produced in vitro bovine embryos developed at different oxygen tensions. The embryos were sampled on day 7 and the culture media, for exosomes isolation, were collected on days 3 and 7 of the embryo development. Blastocysts cultured in high oxygen tension showed increased levels of ROS through fluorescence analysis. This result validated the oxidative stress model for embryos. In order to understand the effect of oxidative stress on the pathways of maternal-embryonic interaction, this study aimed to analyze the ERBB signaling pathway. Despite the fact that miR-199a-5p, described as a possible regulator of the ERBB2 and ERBB3 target genes, showed higher expression in embryos cultured under high tension, the ERBB2 and ERBB3 transcripts and the ERBB2 protein showed no significant difference between high and low oxygen tension groups. Since a regulatory relationship between miR-199a-5p and the ERBB2 target gene was not established for bovine embryos, this study turned to the analysis of other 96 mRNAs and 378 miRNAs, out of 40 mRNAs and 8 miRNAs showed significant changes among the groups. The main altered functions are the response to oxidative stress, cell proliferation and differentiation, epigenetic remodeling, apoptosis, metabolism and maternal-fetal recognition. Finally, in order to understand the bigger picture of oxidative stress effect we analyze the secretion pattern and the miRNA content of the exosomes from culture medium of IVP embryos. Oxidative stress change both, the exosome concentration and the miRNA expression (at D3 and D7). Among the miRNAs, we highlight the miR-210 that was considered by this work as a non-invasive biomarker of the normoxia condition in the in vitro culture of bovine embryos. In conclusion, this study did not elucidate how oxidative stress changes the maternal-embryonic interaction in IVP embryos, but it generated additional knowledge about bovine embryonic development and the high oxygen tension effects.

A domesticação dos equinos e a sua utilização para esportes fez com que a nutrição destes animais passasse por mudanças significativas. O alto requerimento energético pode ser suprido com forragem conservada e grandes quantidades de amido. Este manejo, porém, predispõe os equinos a problemas digestivos e metabólicos, podendo levar a cólica, endotoxemia e laminite. Outra forma de atingir o requerimento energético é a adição de gordura na dieta, já que óleos vegetais e animais podem conter até três vezes mais energia que grãos em igual volume. Sabe-se que óleos de diferentes fontes diferem quanto a propriedades relacionadas aos seus componentes ativos; óleos podem conter componentes como &omega;-3, &omega;-6, &gamma;-orizanol em diferentes quantidades e estes compostos podem influenciar o metabolismo. O presente estudo teve por objetivo avaliar o efeito de óleos de diferentes origens e composição sobre o metabolismo bioquímico, oxidativo e função de células polimorfonucleares de equinos. Durante 15 semanas foram utilizados cinco equinos machos, mestiços, que receberam ou óleo mineral, ou óleo de soja, ou óleo de arroz, ou óleo de linhaça, ou óleo de peixe, em delineamento experimental quadrado latino 5x5. Cada período experimental foi composto por três semanas. Foram avaliados perfil bioquímico, metabolismo oxidativo e \"burst\"-respiratório de granulócitos. Houve efeito do tratamento sobre os teores de triglicérides, fração HDL de colesterol e hemoglobina, contagem de eritrócitos, hematócrito e na intensidade de produção de EROs por granulócitos estimulados com Sa-PI. Das variáveis do perfil bioquímico, pode-se observar que a adição dos óleos de soja, arroz, linhaça e peixe na dieta reduziu os triglicérides plasmáticos, a inclusão de óleos em até 5% da MS nas dietas não representou grande desafio oxidativo, apenas as concentrações de hemoglobina foram menores no tratamento com óleo de soja. O óleo de linhaça aumentou o teor de ácido linolênico plasmático e teve efeito sobre a produção de EROs in vitro por granulócitos dos equinos. / Sports use made significant changes in horses nutrition necessary. The high energy requirement is supplied with conserved forage, and large amounts of starch. This management, however, predisposes horses to digestive and metabolic disorders, leading to colic endotoxemia and laminitis. Another way to achieve the energy requirement is adding fat to the diet, as vegetable and animal oils may contain up to three times more energy than grains in equal volume. It is known that oils from different sources differ in their active components related properties, thay may contain &omega;-3, &omega;-6, &gamma;-oryzanol, in different quantities and these compounds can influence metabolism. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of different oils from different origins and composition on the maintenance of the horses biochemical and oxidative metabolism and on polymorphonuclear cells function. A Latin square design was made with five crossbreed horses fed during three weeks with the five treatments: mineral (control), soy, rice, linseed and fish oil. Biochemical profiles, oxidative metabolism respiratory-burst of granulocytes were evaluated. Treatment effect was found on the triglycerides, HDL cholesterol and hemoglobin levels, erythrocyte count, hematocrit and intensity of ROS production by granulocytes stimulated with Sa-PI. Conclusions: The addition of oil to the diet reduced plasma triglycerides, fat diets didnt offer major oxidative challenge and hemoglobin showed to be a more sensitive oxidative marker. Linseed oil increases the plasma levels of linolenic acid and had effects on the production of in vitro ROS by granulocytes of horses.

<p>Like several of her female peers, Marie Under (1883 - 1980) has been denied the international acclaim she deserves. The earliest text on Marie Under in swedish told of her greatness, but in classical fallic maner reduced her poetic production by marking it with pathological symtoms. Though latter texts by author Enel Melberg have put a feminist perspective on Unders work, the theoretical complexity of her poetic images and language, and its polemic relation to contemporary literary currents, has yet to be recognised. This study will seek to portrait Marie Under and her poetry in this new light.</p><p>The study moves from an installation of Marie Under in the modern discourse she so far has been estranged from, to an analysis of her earlier works (in the 1910’s and 1920’s). Lou Andreas-Salomés theory, characteristic of the period, will found Under’s debut in the discourse of Eros and the production of female subjectivity. Through the theory of Luce Irigaray I will try to see how this force towards a female subjectivity is inverted, to call into question the souvereignity of the (male) subject. That is, to see in the face of modernism not only the rise of female subjectivity but its relativization and multifaced constitution. Irigaray’s poststructuralistic theorizations leads to the postmodern philosophy/communication theory of Jean Baudrillard. With his hyperreal notion of imploded distances between subject and object, decomposition of causality and meaning I take on a search for a voice that surpasses the subject, a voice of simulacra in Marie Under’s poetry from early 20’s.</p><p>A significant portion of the study is engaged in Marie Under’s relationship to her mother tongue. Under wrote poetry in early years but not until her late teens in the language of her own country, estonian - mostly due to the russian occupation. From 1918, when independence was declared, estonian culture blossomed, and the estonian language was renewed. Marie Under’s poetry had a great deal in this linguistic regeneration, and I will sum up this poetic/linguistic practice in the chiasm: to seek language through poetry and the poetry in this language. This dialectic approach to Under’s poetry is an essential part of this study.</p>

Like several of her female peers, Marie Under (1883 - 1980) has been denied the international acclaim she deserves. The earliest text on Marie Under in swedish told of her greatness, but in classical fallic maner reduced her poetic production by marking it with pathological symtoms. Though latter texts by author Enel Melberg have put a feminist perspective on Unders work, the theoretical complexity of her poetic images and language, and its polemic relation to contemporary literary currents, has yet to be recognised. This study will seek to portrait Marie Under and her poetry in this new light. The study moves from an installation of Marie Under in the modern discourse she so far has been estranged from, to an analysis of her earlier works (in the 1910’s and 1920’s). Lou Andreas-Salomés theory, characteristic of the period, will found Under’s debut in the discourse of Eros and the production of female subjectivity. Through the theory of Luce Irigaray I will try to see how this force towards a female subjectivity is inverted, to call into question the souvereignity of the (male) subject. That is, to see in the face of modernism not only the rise of female subjectivity but its relativization and multifaced constitution. Irigaray’s poststructuralistic theorizations leads to the postmodern philosophy/communication theory of Jean Baudrillard. With his hyperreal notion of imploded distances between subject and object, decomposition of causality and meaning I take on a search for a voice that surpasses the subject, a voice of simulacra in Marie Under’s poetry from early 20’s. A significant portion of the study is engaged in Marie Under’s relationship to her mother tongue. Under wrote poetry in early years but not until her late teens in the language of her own country, estonian - mostly due to the russian occupation. From 1918, when independence was declared, estonian culture blossomed, and the estonian language was renewed. Marie Under’s poetry had a great deal in this linguistic regeneration, and I will sum up this poetic/linguistic practice in the chiasm: to seek language through poetry and the poetry in this language. This dialectic approach to Under’s poetry is an essential part of this study.

This essay attempts to examine whether it is possible to find a mutual understanding of the concept of drive between Spinoza’s philosophy and Freud’s psychoanalytical theory. Former texts on this subject have given a variety of conclusions: from a radical separation between the two authors to a complete identification between the two. The drive, or the desire which is the term Spinoza uses, has in Spinoza’s philosophy its foundation in the concept of conatus. Conatus is every thing’s strive to persevere in its being and is the expression of God’s, or the only substance’s, force and action in a here and a now. In the Freudian theory the term trieb, drive, is defined by it’s variation regarding object, source and aim. The late Freudian theory of drives separates the life drive, also called Eros, from the death drive. Eros is the strive of every being to maintain life but also to procreate and create stronger unities of life. It is, as the strive of conatus, a persevering strive. However, in examining the strive of conatus to persevere in its being, which could be said to strive by the guidance of a principle of joy, the distinction between the concept of conatus and the Freudian Eros is made visible through the comparison to the Freudian pleasure principle.