The aim of this Masters thesis has been to find out if, and how, listed Swedish property companies have prepared themselves for the regulation passed by the European Parliament that requires all EU companies listed in a regulated market as well as companies preparing admission to trading, at the latest from 2005 onwards, to prepare their consolidated financial statements in accordance with a single set of accounting standards, International Accounting Standards (IAS). The thesis work has been concentrated on the analysis of the fair value model in IAS 40, investment property and how companies will measure the fair value of their property. The data and results for this study were collected through interviewing various actors in the real estate market in Sweden, the UK and the Netherlands on the use of fair value accounting for investment properties. Results from the study show that: • 57% of the listed Swedish property companies have started preparations to apply IAS by the year 2005 but it is not likely that any of the companies will change before 2005. • Currently there is significant divergence between some of the IAS and the RRs, which is causing some problems in the conversion process. However there is a general misconception that Swedish laws will need to be revised before the EU regulation can come into effect. • Changes in accounting principles will not affect the underlying cash flows and financial analysts will probably not take much notice of the new " IAS profits". • Unlike in the UK and the Netherlands, use of the fair value model will not affect the dividend payouts or remuneration policies in Sweden. But it will affect the accounting for long leasehold property investments in all of the three countries. • The fair value model was considered to have a lot of advantages over the cost model. • Listed Swedish property companies, unlike the English and Dutch companies, are not ready to adopt the use of the fair value model mainly due to the uncertainty surrounding the measurement of the fair values. • Measurement of the fair values will be based mainly on the discounted cash flow method. • In contrast to the companies studied in the UK and the Netherlands, Swedish property managers were distrustful of the exclusive use of external valuers. / Enligt ett beslut i EU-parlamentet ska bolag vars aktier eller skuldebrev är noterade på en börs, upprätta sin externa redovisning enligt International Accounting Standards (IAS)/International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS)1 senast år 2005. Syftet med detta examensarbete har varit att undersöka om och hur svenska börsnoterade fastighetsbolagen har förebrett sig för kravet om IAS som i praktiken kommer att medför redovisning enligt verkligt värde. Arbetet har koncentrerats till att analysera verkligt värde modellen i IAS 40 och hur fastighetsbolagen kommer att verkligt värdera sina fastigheter. För att får en uppfattning av hur redovisning av fastigheter enligt verkligt värde fungerar i praktiken gjordes ett antal intervjuer hos noterade fastighetsbolag och andra aktörer på fastighetsmarknaden i Storbritannien och Nederländerna innan intervjuerna i Sverige. Undersökningen visar att: • 57 % av de börsnoterade fastighetsbolagen i Sverige har kommit i gång med förberedelserna att redovisa enligt IAS/IFRS senaste år 2005 men det är osannolikt att noterade fastighetsbolagen övergår till IAS/IFRS tidigare än år 2005. • Det finns ett antal väsentliga skillnader mellan några IAS och RR vilket komplicerar konverteringsarbetet. Emellertid finns det en missuppfattning att det behövs några lagändringar innan beslutet om IAS/IFRS kan vara tillämplig i Sverige. • Ändringar i redovisningsnormer kommer inte att påverka företagets kassaflöde och finansanalytikerna troligen kommer inte att bry sig så mycket om de nya "IAS vinsterna". • I motsats till policyn i de engelska och nederländska fastighetsbolagen kommer tillämpning av den verkligt värde modellen inte att påverka utdelningspolicy eller ersättningar i de studerade svenska fastighetsbolagen. Men det kommer att ha en stor betydelse i frågan om leasingavtal. • Den verkligt värde modellen i IAS 40 ansågs att ha många fördelar över den kostnadsmodellen. •De undersökta svenska börsnoterade fastighetsbolagen, i motsats till de i UK och Nederländerna, är inte redo att välja verkligt värde modellen i IAS 40 mest på grund av osäkerheten kring värderingsprocessen och metoderna. • Undersökningen visar också på att bedömning av det verkliga värdet kommer, för det mesta, att baseras på kassaflödesmetoden. • I motsats till fastighetsbolagschefer i Storbritannien och Nederländerna är de svenska fastighetsbolagscheferna mycket negativa till att ha enbart externa värderare. • Den gemensamma tillämpningen av IAS/IFRS i Europa kommer att underlätta jämförelsen av noterade bolags finansiella rapporter och leda till mer fokus på bolagsledning och dess effektivitet. Men än så länge tillämpas inte gemensamma värderingsnormer i alla länder, eller ens i samma land, och därför rekommenderas fortsatt försiktighet gällande rapporterna.

This thesis examines the effect government ownership has on the relationship between fair value accounting and earnings quality when “mark-to-model” techniques are used in fair value estimations. To this end we compare 36 real estate companies controlled by private interests with 32 real estate companies controlled by the state and municipal governments in Sweden. We find that the relationship between fair value accounting exposure and aggregated earnings quality is negatively affected by government ownership when unobservable inputs are used in the fair value estimation. Previous research treats government ownership simply as having a first order relationship with earnings quality. Our results indicate determinants of earnings quality can affect one another, and that these effects should be considered.

A research report submitted In partial fulfilment of the degree Master of Commerce (Accounting) University of the Witwatersrand / This research report evaluates the nature of, and gathers evidence of, the potential misuse of the non-GAAP 'adjusted earnings' by JSE-listed firms in South Africa. The prior literature is explored and applied to the South African context which is a unique environment due to the mandatory use of the non-GAAP Headline Earnings . The prior literature provides the grounding for the research methods which enhance the validity of the study. Adjusted earnings are analysed through 3 research questions and sub-questions. The first research question focuses on the nature of the use of adjusted earnings in South Africa, by examining the extent of use of adjusted earnings by a population of JSE firms, as well as the most common types of adjustments used. It is evaluated using descriptive statistical methods from data from databases and company annual financial reports. Research question 2 gathers evidence for misuse through the identification of 'valid' and 'invalid' adjustments made in the determination of adjusted earnings, as well as the identification of the repeated use of particular adjustments, which are indicators of misuse from the prior research of Bhattacharyaa, Black, Christensenb and Larsonc (2003) and Doyle, Lundholm and Soliman (2003). This question uses an ANOVA and repeated measure approach respectively using the same data from research question 1. The third research question examines whether there is an association between adjusted earnings and whether firms meet or beat analyst earnings forecasts more often (the dependent variable) as set out in Doyle, Jennings and Soliman (2013). This is assessed using logistic regression analysis using analyst earnings forecast data and company results data The results indicate that types of firms and adjustments made in South Africa are similar to U.S. literature. It raises questions around use of adjusted earnings as a performance metric and the use of Headline Earnings in South Africa. Evidence of misuse of adjusted earnings was found. In addition, a strong relationship similar to the Doyle et al. (2013) findings was found between the use of upwardly adjusted earnings and the propensity of firms to meet or beat analyst forecasts. Whether a firm s accounting earnings met or beat the forecast was also found to have significant influence on the dependent variable. It was also found that South African firms met or beat analyst forecasts significantly less often than U.S. firms, suggesting that there may be structural differences in the analyst forecasts environment in South Africa when compared to the U.S. The results suggest that adjusted earnings may be misused in South Africa, and one of the motivations to do so is to meet or beat analyst earnings forecasts. / MT2017

In 2005, all groups listed on European stock exchanges are required to prepare their consolidated financial statements according to International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS). IFRS are different from local regulations across Europe in many aspects, and observers expect the transition process thorny and resource-draining for the companies that undertake it. The study explores transition difficulties by Swedish bank groups on the way of implementing IAS 39, Financial Instruments: Recognition and Measurement. Deemed the most controversial and challenging standard for adoption by the financial sector, it indeed poses new demandson classification, recognition and measurment of financial instruments, and sets out new hedge accounting rules, previously unseen in Swedish practice. Additionaly, the structure of bank's balance sheets makes IAS 39 also the central one among all other standards in terms of numbers of balance sheet items it impacts. The study uses qualitative method to explore whether transition to IAS 39 is likely to improve transparency in reporting derivatives. Focus is on use of interest rate swaps as hedging instruments in mitigation of interest rate risk. It is concluded that differences between two reporting frameworks have been well understood by the banks early in the implementation process. A negative feature of the standard is increased volatility in earnings as a result of more wide-spread reliance on fair value measurement method. This accounting volatility impedes comparability of performance results, as well as conceals true efficiency of economic hedge relationships. To some degree, the volatility can be minimized by the application of hedge accounting. However, a bank must methodically follow a set of rigourous if hegde accounting is to be adopted. Fair value is a more straightforward alternative to hedge accounting , but it brings in additional concerns, and has not yet been endorsed in the EU. It is additionally argued that recognition of all derivatives on BS and measurement at fair value are two important features of IAS 39 that indeed increases reporting transparency by minimizing risk of undisclosed hidden losses.

Diese kumulative Dissertation besteht aus drei eigenständigen Arbeiten aus dem Bereich der Rechnungslegungsforschung. Die erste Arbeit ist eine Befragungsstudie von 137 internationalen Rechnungslegungsforschern über die Fair-Value-Orientierung von 28 lokalen Rechnungslegungssystemen. Anhand der Umfrageergebnisse war es möglich, einen internationalen Fair-Value Score zu bilden. Dieser zeigt, dass das portugiesische, slowenische und das russische Rechnungslegungssystem am meisten und das österreichische, deutsche und italienische Rechnungslegungssystem am wenigsten Fair-Value orientiert ist. Die zweite Arbeit untersucht die Determinanten der Wahl von Rechnungslegungssystemen mittels eines Prinzipal-Agenten-Models. In dem Model kann ein risikoneutraler Entrepreneur (Prinzipal) mit einem Anreiz zur Konsumglättung zwischen zwei Rechnungslegungssystemen wählen. Das Rechnungslegungssystem wird genutzt, um eine effiziente vertragstheoretische Lösung mit dem Manager herbeizuführen und um Informationen über das Unternehmen für Kapitalmarktteilnehmer bereitzustellen. Die Modellergebnisse zeigen, dass der Entrepreneur eher gewillt ist das Fair-Value-orientierte Rechnungslegungssystem zu wählen, wenn die Bedeutung von Eigenkapitalmärkten steigt, die Opportunitätskosten des Managements steigen, die Produktivität des Managements sinkt und die Qualität des Enforcements von Rechnungslegungsregeln abnimmt. Die empirischen Ergebnisse bestätigen größtenteils die theoretischen Erwartungen. Die dritte Arbeit untersucht, ob die verpflichtende Einführung der IFRS bei gleichzeitiger Anpassung des Enforcements zu einer Verbesserung der Ergebnisqualität geführt hat. Die empirischen Ergebnisse sind uneinheitlich und können daher den vermuteten Effekt nicht bestätigen. / This cumulative PhD-thesis consists of three papers within the field of empirical accounting research. The first paper provides descriptive evidence on the fair value orientation of existing local GAAP systems by surveying the perception of 137 international accounting academics about the fair value orientation of 28 local GAAP systems. The survey results enable us to rank countries’ local GAAP systems by their fair value orientation. The score ranking shows that Portuguese, Slovenian and Russian GAAP are the top three and Austrian, German and Italian GAAP are the bottom three of the fair value orientation. Furthermore, we are able to show that the fair value orientation of IFRS is higher than any of the 28 local GAAP systems. The second paper investigates the determinants of financial accounting regime choice in a principal agent setting. The model considers a risk-neutral entrepreneur who needs financial accounting information for contracting with a managerial agent and for communicating the firm value to a risk-averse secondary capital market. The comparative static results indicate that the preference of the entrepreneur for a fair value accounting regime increases with the relative importance of the secondary capital market and the opportunity costs of the managerial agent, while it decreases with the overall quality of the accounting signal, the effectiveness of the enforcement process and managerial productivity. Empirical evidence, which is based on country-year and country-level and US time series analysis, provides support for most of the theoretical predictions. The third paper investigates whether earnings quality effects are more pronounced post mandatory IFRS adoption in countries that substantially changed their enforcement system of accounting standards in comparison to countries that already had a strict enforcement system in place. The empirical analysis gives inconclusive results for the earnings quality measures.

Börsnoterade företag inom EU ska sedan år 2005 redovisa enligt den internationella redovisningsstandarden IFRS. Det innebär att börsnoterade fastighetsbolag som huvudregel kan välja att redovisa förvaltningsfastigheter till verkligt värde enligt IAS 40. Standarden ger inga tydliga riktlinjer om hur verkligt värde ska beräknas och av tidigare forskning framgår att det har bidragit till svårigheter vid jämförelser av företags finansiella information. Detta har påverkat jämförbarheten bland europeiska fastighetsbolag genom att företag på grund av brist på generella standarder om hur värderingen ska gå till, har vänt sig till nationella GAAP för vägledning. Ytterligare vägledning har efterfrågats, vilket har resulterat i standarden IFRS 13 Värdering till verkligt värde. IFRS 13 har utvecklats i syfte att tydliggöra och definiera dels begreppet verkligt värde, dels hur värderingen ska gå till. Gemensamma internationella standarder till trots, så baseras redovisningen i olika länder på olika traditioner vilka kan påverka hur redovisningen går till i praktiken. I följande studie ingår därför fastighetsbolag från Sverige, Tyskland och Storbritannien.I denna studie undersöks fastighetsbolag vilka samtliga redovisar sina förvaltningsfastigheter till verkligt värde. Studien syftar till att undersöka värderingsprecisionen under de senaste fem åren och huruvida IFRS 13 har haft effekt på värderingen. Detta undersöks genom att studera huruvida realiserade värdeförändringar uppstår vid försäljning av tillgången. IFRS 13 anger tre olika värderingsnivåer vid beräkning av det verkliga värdet och studien syftar vidare till att undersöka till vilken nivå bedömningen klassificeras att tillhöra.Studien baseras på en kvantitativ forskningsmetod med ett deduktivt angreppssätt. De teoretiska utgångspunkterna utgår från tidigare forskning inom redovisning till verkligt värde, värderingsprinciper och harmonisering av redovisningspraxis. Våra resultat visar att de undersökta fastighetsbolagen i genomsnitt undervärderar förvaltningsfastigheter med 10,99 procent. Vidare finner vi inga signifikanta skillnader i avvikelsens storlek mellan de olika länderna, eller att IFRS 13 har haft effekt på värderingen. Våra resultat kan förklaras av försiktighet och rädsla för att övervärdera tillgångar. Vi kan däremot inte uttala oss om huruvida manipulation av redovisningen är en bidragande orsak till att värderingen ser ut som den gör. Vidare kan den pågående harmoniseringsprocessen av internationella redovisningsstandarder förklara varför vi inte finner några skillnader mellan Sverige, Tyskland och Storbritannien. Vi finner också att en klar majoritet värderar till verkligt värde med hjälp av indata på Nivå 3. Ett fåtal redovisar inte denna information, vilket är anmärkningsvärt eftersom de har en skyldighet att göra det. / Listed companies within the EU are obligated to report in accordance with the international standard IFRS since 2005. This means that listed companies as main principle, can choose fair value when reporting investment properties according to IAS 40. This standard does not give clear guidance of how fair value should be calculated and previous research argues that this has contributed to difficulties when comparing financial reports. This has affected the comparability of European real estate companies, as the absence of a general valuation standard has impelled companies to address national GAAP for guidance. There has been a demand for further guidance, which has resulted in the development of IFRS 13 Fair value measurement. The purpose of IFRS 13 is to clarify and define the meaning of fair value and how the valuation should be carried out. Despite common international standards, financial reporting in different countries is based on certain values and traditions that may affect accounting practice. Hence, the focus of this study will be companies within the real estate sector in Sweden, Germany and United Kingdom.The real estate companies in this study report their investment properties at fair value. The purpose of this study is to investigate the fair value precision over the last five years and whether IFRS 13 has had an effect on the valuation. This is examined by analyzing whether realised gains are reported when the asset is sold. Furthermore, IFRS 13 defines a value hierarchy which includes three different levels for calculating fair value and the aim of this study is to highlight at which level investment properties are reported.This study is based on a quantitative research method with a deductive approach and it is based on previous research of fair value accounting, valuation principles and the harmonization of accounting practice. Our results indicate that the examined real estate companies underestimate their reported investment properties with 10,99 percent at average. Furthermore, we do not find evidence of a significant difference in valuation precision between the examined countries, nor do we find evidence that IFRS 13 has had an effect on the precision. Our results may be explained by prudence and fear of overstating the value of the assets. However, we cannot say that this is the result of manipulation of numbers. Furthermore, the fact that we do not find any differences between Sweden, Germany and United Kingdom may be explained by a continuous harmonization process of international accounting standards. We also find that a clear majority report at fair value Level 3, though there are a few who do not disclose this information. This is remarkable, as they are obligated to do so.This thesis is written in Swedish.

International Financial Reporting Standard IFRS 3 Business Combinations settles the rules of identifying, measuring, accounting and reporting for the business combinations. It decides, what is, or is not, a business combination, and explains different types of it. It asks an acquirer to use the acquisition method for accounting for the business combination at the date of acquisition. Especially to correctly recognize all the assets and liabilities acquired in the business combinations, to measure them at their fair value at the date of acquisition, to measure goodwill, and to report the information on business combination required in his financial statements. This thesis deals with the most important aspects of the business combinations, especially mergers. It explains also the most significant differences of the standard IFRS 3 Business combinations compared to the previous vision, and to some national legal regulations, and mentions also the probable development of the international accounting in the future. An attention is given also to the cross-border acquisitions. In its practical part, the thesis focuses to evaluation of fulfilling the requirements to disclose information on business combination in practice.

Accounting / M.Com. (Accounting0

<p>Bakgrund: Noterade bolag i Sverige skall, enligt ett EU-fördrag implementera IASB:s redovisningsrekommendationer i koncernredovisningen från och med den 1 januari 2005. Dessa rekommendationer lägger stor vikt vid verkliga värden och liknar på så sätt den anglosaxiska traditionen. Sverige har tidigare anammat den kontinentala traditionen som är präglad av försiktighet och en stor koppling mellan redovisning och beskattning. För redovisning av förvaltningsfastigheter gäller numera rekommendationen IAS 40, som innebär att bolagen har möjlighet att värdera förvaltningsfastigheter till verkligt värde istället för anskaffningsvärde. Denna rekommendation har påverkat fastighetsbolagens redovisning i stor utsträckning och en rad problem har uppstått. Problemen är bland annat hur en värdering till verkligt värde skall gå till samt hur de värdeskillnader som uppstår skall redovisas och eventuellt beskattas.</p><p>Syfte: Att identifiera de problem som uppstår vid en implementering av IAS 40 i koncern och juridisk person samt att urskilja förslag på lösningar av dessa problem.</p><p>Metod: Insamlandet av material till arbetet har skett dels genom kvalitativa metoder i form av intervjuer med sakkunniga på problemområdet och dels av kvantitativa metoder i form av två enkätundersökningar ställda till noterade fastighetsbolag i Sverige samt analytiker av dessa fastighetsbolag.</p><p>Slutsatser: En oenighet råder mellan fastighetsbolag, analytiker och sakkunniga kring hur förvaltningsfastigheter skall värderas och redovisas. Det råder dock en enighet om att orealiserade värdeförändringar inte skall beskattas. Det har även visat sig att fastighetsbolagen har en annan syn på fastighetens verkliga värde än vad som står angivet i IAS 40.</p> / <p>Background: Listed companies in Sweden shall, according to the European Union, implement the accounting standards IFRS/IAS, published by IASB in the consolidated financial statement from the first of January 2005. These standards focus on fair value and are in that way similar to the Anglo-Saxon tradition. Swedish accounting has, before the implementation, adopted the Continental accounting tradition which is characterized by caution and a strong relationship between tax and accounting. Nowadays, the recommendation IAS 40 shall be applied on investment properties, which means that the real estate companies has the opportunity to valuate their investment properties to fair value instead of the historical cost. This new recommendation has had a huge affect on the Swedish real estate companies’ accounting and a number of problems has appeared. One of these problems is how the valuation of investment properties to fair value shall be determined. Another problem is how the value differentials, that occurs, shall be accounted and how the tax problems that occurs shall be treated.</p><p>Purpose: To identify the problems that appears due to the implementation of the accounting standards IAS 40 on consolidated companies and parent-/subsidiary companies and to discern proposals to solutions of these problems.</p><p>Method: We have collected the material to this bachelor thesis through quality methods in the form of interviews with experts within the field and through quantity methods in the form of two questionnaires; one towards Swedish real estate companies, and one towards analysers of these real estate companies.</p><p>Conclusion: There is a dissonance between real estate companies, analysers and experts in their opinion about how investment properties shall be valued and accounted. The respondents have however the same opinion about the tax problem concerning unconverted value differentials. Our bachelor thesis also shows that the real estate companies’ view on fair value differs from the definition stated in IAS 40.</p>

<p>Background: Within real estate companies assets according to IFRS/ IAS 40 should be valued at fair value, to compare with previous valuation criteria according to which real estate should valued at cost. Two models can be used within IAS 40, these are value at cost and fair value. When valued at cost the real estate value in the balance sheet should be specified at cost. The method chosen by the company should be used for all real estate within the company except for the premises used by the company. </p><p>Purpose: The purpose of the study is to analyse and evaluate how real estate companies experienced the problems that arose when converting to IAS 40, and to analyse the effects on the companies key ratios as a result of the change of accounting method. Key ratios examined were, return on equity, solvency ratio, P/E-ratio and debt/equity ratio. </p><p>Method: The essay is made on a qualitative effort in the form of four interviews with experts within the chosen subject area. The compilation of key ratio is made in a quantitative form and is made up of secondary data. Conclusions: With the implementing of IAS 40 for real estate accounting, the ability to better compare the accounting between real estate companies increased, even though all companies do not account for their real estate in the same way. It appeared that the regulation requirements need to be adjusted and formed in a way that better matches the reality in which real estate companies act. Valuation with fair value proved to have both advantages and disadvantages. The advantage was that the comparability and the fair picture between real estate companies increased. The disadvantage was that the valuation of the fair value gives an increased risk for the real estate companies to be over- or undervalued. A wrong valuation gives a wrong picture of the real estate companies and effects the key ratios in a volatile manner.</p>