SammanfattningVid en fastighetsöverlåtelse är det mångt och mycket som skall regleras så som köpe-kontrakt med alla dess skriftliga krav. Gällande regleringen av fel i fastighet har lag-stiftaren valt att dela upp ansvaret mellan säljare och köpare för att underlätta an-svarsbördan. Faktiska fel i fastighet tillhör köparens ansvarsområde och denne har en undersökningsplikt som fastställer att denne inte äger rätt att gentemot säljaren åbe-ropa de fel denne bort upptäcka vid sin undersökning. Denna ansvarsfördelning har dock ställts på sin spets efter domslutet i NJA 2007 s. 86 då HD ålade en säljare an-svaret kring faktiska fel i form av en upplysningsplikt.Då HD inte lämnat någon vägledning för hur en liknande upplysningsplikt kan ak-tualiseras är rättsläget idag något oklart gällande faktiska fel och vem som bör stå an-svarig. Efter den i uppsatsen utförda utredningen av rättspraxis på området menar författaren att en upplysningsplikt endast bör aktualiseras i de fall där säljaren inte upplyst om ett fel denne haft kännedom om, men även förstått att köparen saknat kännedom om det aktuella felet. Vidare är det av vikt huruvida felet i sig är av en all-varligare karaktär.Därmed har brännpunkten i utredningen fastnat kring säljarens och köparens känne-dom kring felet och även hur allvarligt felets karaktär är. Dock kvarstår viss osäkerhet i rättsläget då HD inte avgjort fler rättsfall kring frågan efter NJA 2007 s. 86. Därmed kommer det bli tämligen intressant att följa framtida mål kring frågan och se hur HD argumenterar för upplysningsplikten och vilka faktorer som de finner avgörande för att upplysningsplikten kring faktiska fel aktualiseras. / AbstractWhen selling a property many matters need to be taken in account for, such as the contract between the parties with all the forms prescribed by law. When settling which party that should carry the liability regarding upcoming errors on the property the legislator has chosen to facilitate the burden of liability between the parties, a delegation that is a quite complicated matter. The buyer is obligated to examine the property for errors that are factual; it is laid down by law that a buyer does not pos-sess the right to refer to factual errors on the property that the buyer would have found while examining.Delegation of liability was subject of matter when the Swedish Supreme Court made the rulings in case NJA 2007 s. 86 public. The property owner was signed a general liability re-garding errors that are factual. The legal position is somewhat indecisive on this liability due to lack of reasoning from the Swedish Supreme Court on how to implement this new liabil-ity. When analyzing relevant case law the author is of the conclusion that, the property owner’s liability to inform the buyer regarding errors that are factual only should be imple-mented when he has not informed the buyer about the errors he has knowledge about. Furthermore the factual errors have to be of a severe nature and the property owner must have understood that the buyer was without knowledge of the errors. The focal point re-gards the knowledge of the property owner regarding the factual errors and the severity of the same. The author is of the conclusion that liability can be signed the property owner only in those cases where the errors is of a severe nature. However uncertainty remains pending rulings from the Swedish Supreme Court on the question. Thus, following the Swedish Supreme Court regarding further case law to see how they interprets the liability will most certainly be of interest.

The thesis hears content-error in relation to agreements closed by electronic means. The purpose of the thesis is to elucidate how the rules in 32 §(1) AvtL apply to agreements closed by such means and to evaluate its suitability. The elucidation is done on the basis of, the rules’ adequacy in relation to their objectives in collaboration with a comparative view on a selection of international legal framework under private law, such as DCFR, UNCITRAL Model Law, UNIDROIT Principles and CISG. Since Sweden lack a specific regulation for electronically closed agreements, all modern closing methods will be evaluated from the dated outlook of the Swedish Contract Act. In relation to entirely automated processes which results in the closing of an agreement, particular difficulty arise in correlation with prerequisites, which requires a human stance. How to determine a computer's will, trust or bad faith is possibly a trick question, the correct question may be, if intention, trust or bad faith can be attributed to a computer. The IT-investigation, SOU 1996:40, dismiss using the rule on error-in-content in association with automatically generated declaration of intention. The legal debate is relatively thin on this area and the vast majority of doctrine is out-of-date. The thesis’s conclusion can be summarized in that the subjective elements should be considered fulfilled with most electronically closed agreements but a legal reform in this area is to recommend in a mainly clarifying aim. A provision free from subjective elements – in unity with the stated international legislations’ line – is to advocate. Finally, the need of an alternative imposition of penalty has – in association with a content-error-mistake – been noticed, in the form of damage so as to put the other party in the same position in which it would have been if it had not concluded the contract.

During the last years we have seen the birth of free-electron lasers, a new type of light source ten billion times brighter than syncrotrons and able to produce pulses only a few femtoseconds long. One of the main motivations for building these multi-million dollar machines was the prospect of imaging biological samples such as proteins and viruses in 3D without the need for crystallization or staining. This thesis contains some of the first biological results from free-electron lasers. These results include 2D images, both of whole cells and of the giant mimivirus and also con- tains a 3D density map of the mimivirus assembled from diffraction patterns from many virus particles. These are important proof-of-concept experiments but they also mark the point where free-electron lasers start to produce biologically relevant results. The most noteworthy of these results is the unexpectedly non-uniform density distribution of the internals of the mimivirus. We also present Hawk, the only open-source software toolkit for analysing single particle diffraction data. The Uppsala-developed program suite supports a wide range fo algorithms and takes advantage of Graphics Processing Units which makes it very computationally efficient. Last, the problem introduced by structural variability in samples is discussed. This includes a description of the problem and how it can be overcome, and also how it could be turned into an advantage that allows us to image samples in all of their conformational states.

According to generally accepted auditing standards, the auditor should give a going concern warning if there is substantial doubt regarding the client’s ability to survive. Research has shown that the accuracy is low because most companies receiving a going concern warning survives and most companies that declare bankruptcy has not received a going concern warning. This study focuses on the accuracy of given going concern warnings, because previous research in this area is limited. The results indicate that the competence and independence of the auditor has an impact on the accuracy of given going concern warnings and that the accuracy is higher when the time lag is longer. The study contributes with a wider definition of accuracy and shows that there are significant differences in accuracy between the big audit firms. / Bakgrund Enligt god revisionssed ska revisorer utfärda en fortlevnadsvarning i revisionsberättelsen om det råder tvivel angående klientens förmåga till fortsatt drift. Träffsäkerheten har i tidigare studier visat sig vara låg, då de flesta företag som får en fortlevnadsvarning inte går i konkurs och de flesta företag som går i konkurs inte har fått en fortlevnadsvarning. Tidigare studier har främst fokuserat på om företag som går i konkurs har fått en fortlevnadsvarning och denna studie fokuserar därför på typ I-fel, alltså att företag som fått en fortlevnadsvarning inte går i konkurs. Syfte Syftet med studien är att förklara om revisorns kompetens och oberoende påverkar träffsäkerheten av givna fortlevnadsvarningar. Dessutom syftar studien till att undersöka om träffsäkerheten påverkas av att tidsfördröjningen är längre än 12 månader efter fortlevnadsvarningen. Metod Studien har en deduktiv ansats och utgår från tidigare forskning, vilket legat till grund för studiens tre hypoteser. Vidare har studien en tvärsnittsdesign, där det kvantitativa datamaterialet främst har hämtats från svenska aktiebolags årsredovisningar. Slutsats Resultatet tyder på att revisorns kompetens och oberoende påverkar träffsäkerheten av givna fortlevnadsvarningar och att ökad tidsfördröjning har positiv påverkan på träffsäkerheten. Studien bidrar med en utvidgad definition av träffsäkerhet och visar på en signifikant skillnad i träffsäkerhet mellan de större revisionsbyråerna.

Sammanfattning Fel i programvara (buggar) kostar ofantliga summor varje år. I detta arbete presenteras en metod där programexekveringsmiljön utan vare sig programmerarens eller användarens inblandning utförligt kan rapportera och dölja effekterna av en avsevärd andel buggar. Genom att kompilatorn eller tolken tillåter att en och samma procedur implementeras hur många gånger som helst införs ett helt automatiskt stöd för N-Version Programming (NVP) omedelbart i programspråket. Tekniken gör programvaran feltolerant och blir ett komplement till kostsam och ofta bristfällig testning. En tolk utvecklades för ett programspråk som tillåter multipla definitioner av procedurer. Därmed har det inbyggt stöd för feltolerans genom redundans på procedurnivå. Ett experiment genomfördes där nio programmerare oberoende av varandra implementerade 12 utförligt specificerade procedurer. De olika bidragen klistrades in i ett och samma program. Nio av 12 feltoleranta sammansatta procedurer fungerade perfekt. I många fall även när en majoritet av de ingående bidragen drogs med allvarliga fel. Sammanställningen genomfördes både före och efter programmerarnas egen testning och felrättning. Testningen visade sig vara en faktor med liten inverkan på helheten även om många enskilda uppdaterade bidrag fungerade avsevärt bättre än förut. I något fall lyckades metoden påvisa tvetydigheter i specifikationen när olika versioner producerade olika men formellt korrekta resultat. / Södra Stenbocksgatan 120 252 44 HELSINGBORG 042 14 67 06

This study concerns the obligation to notify the breaching party of a breach of contract, when the breach of contract consists of fiduciary negligence in the context of lawyer and auditor services. More precisely, the essay examines if (i) such an obligation exists, and if so, (ii) during what time such notification (“notification period”) is to be made and (iii) when the notification period commences. Lastly, it seeks to clarify the legal consequence of neglecting to give notice within the notification period. The analysis includes a discussion about the required form and content of the notice. The used method of research is legal dogmatics with a more liberal approach, referred to as legal analytics.                       To adequately assess the mentioned legal areas of interest, it has been necessary to distinguish the legal institute of notification. This has been done by a demarcation towards statutory rules of limitation and legal principles of inactivity that causes loss of contractual rights. The study solely deals with the duty of notification as a principle according to which a party may not be inactive if the party wants to retain their right to remedies for a breach of contract.                       The study finds that there is a duty to give notice about non-performance to the counterparty (i.e. fiduciary negligence), even in the absence of any statutory provision regulating the duty. This duty extends to lawyer and auditor services. The notification period commences when it is likely that there has been damage, usually in terms of economic loss, and there is reasonable reason for the client to assume that the damage is a consequence of fiduciary negligence. The length of the notification period is highly dependent on the circumstances of the specific case, but case law from lower instances indicate that a notification period between three to six months is deemed reasonable. Regarding the legal consequence of a neglected notification, there is convincing support in both statutory provisions by way of analogy and in case law, that if a party neglects to give due notice to its counterparty, the same party suffers a total loss of remedies for the breach of contract.                       In summary, the legal situation can be said to have moved in a stricter direction for the non-breaching party, taking into account recent case law from the Supreme Court. Notwithstanding the mentioned, a need for clarification from the Supreme Court remains. More specifically, there is still ambiguity regarding the specific circumstances that are necessary for the notification period to commence and the length of the notification period.

Autonomous vehicles are currently under study and one of the critical parts is the localization of the vehicle in the environment. Different localization methods have been studied over the years, such as the GPS sensor, commonly fused with other sensors such as the IMU. However, situations where the vehicle crosses a tunnel, a bridge, or there is simply traffic congestion, can cause the vehicle to get lost. Therefore, other methods such as point cloud registration have been used, where two point clouds are aligned, thus finding the pose of the vehicle on a precomputed map. Point cloud alignment, although a useful and functional method, is not free from errors that can lead to vehicle mislocalization. The intention of this work is to develop and compare different metrics capable of measuring in real time the performance of the point cloud alignment algorithm used, in this case Normal Distribution Transform (NDT). Therefore, it is important first of all to know if the position obtained meets the minimum requirements defined, just by knowing the input and output parameters of the algorithm. In addition to classifying the positioning as good or bad, the objective is to have a quality parameter that allows estimating the error committed in a complex environment where the uncertainty is very high. In addition, the influence of vehicle speed on the error made by the point cloud alignment algorithm will also be studied to determine whether there is any significant correlation between them. For this purpose, four different metrics have been studied, two of them being new contributions to this algorithm, called Error Propagation and CorAl, while the ones called Hessian and Score are obtained from the alignment algorithm itself. Data used was previously recorded and corrected, therefore obtaining ground truth data. Once the metrics were implemented, all of them were subjected to the same experiments, thus obtaining for each instant a quality measure that allowed a fair comparison to be made. These experiments were carried out on two different routes, being simulated 5 times each. In addition, from these simulations the speed was recorded, allowing the influence study to be carried out. The results show that the best performing metrics in terms of classification and estimation were the Error Propagation and the Hessian, while being impossible to determine a threshold value for the case of CorAl. Furthermore, they show that despite being functional, the error estimation is still far from perfect. It has also been shown that the error estimation of the lateral axis of the vehicle is more complex than in the case of the longitudinal axis. Finally, a strong and positive relationship between the vehicle speed and the error made by the alignment algorithm has been found. / Autonoma fordon studeras för närvarande och en av de kritiska delarna är lokaliseringen av fordonet i omgivningen. Olika lokaliseringsmetoder har studerats genom åren, t.ex. GPS-sensorn som ofta kombineras med andra sensorer, t.ex. IMU. Situationer där fordonet korsar en tunnel, en bro eller där det helt enkelt är trafikstockningar kan leda till att fordonet tappar uppfattningen om sin position. Därför har andra metoder utvecklats, t.ex. registrering av punktmoln, där två punktmoln justeras för att hitta fordonets position på en förinställd karta. Även om punktmolnsjustering är en användbar och funktionell metod, är den inte fri från fel som kan leda till felaktig lokalisering av fordonet. Syftet med detta arbete är att utveckla och jämföra olika mätmetoder som i realtid kan mätaprestandan hos den algoritm för punktmolnsjustering som används, i detta fall Normal DistributionTransform (NDT). Därför är det viktigt att först och främst veta om den erhållna tjänsten uppfyllerde fastställda minimikraven, bara genom att känna till algoritmens in- och utgångsparametrar.Förutom att klassificera positioneringen som bra eller dålig är målet att ha en kvalitetsparametersom gör det möjligt att uppskatta det fel som begåtts i en komplex miljö där osäkerheten är myckethög. Dessutom kommer fordonshastighetens inverkan på felet som görs av algoritmen för justeringav punktmoln också att studeras för att avgöra om det finns någon signifikant korrelation mellandem. För detta ändamål har fyra olika mått studerats, varav två är nya bidrag till denna algoritm, kallade Error Propagation och CorAl, medan de som kallas Hessian och Score erhålls från själva anpassningsalgoritmen. Data har tidigare registrerats och korrigerats, vilket ger sanningsdata. När mätvärdena hade implementerats utsattes de alla för samma experiment, så att man för varje ögonblick fick ett kvalitetsmått som gjorde det möjligt att göra en rättvis jämförelse. Dessa experiment utfördes på två olika rutter, som simulerades 5 gånger vardera. Dessutom registrerades hastigheten från dessa simuleringar, vilket gjorde det möjligt att genomföra en påverkansstudie. Resultaten visar att de bäst presterande mätvärdena när det gäller klassificering och uppskattning var Error Propagation och Hessian. Dessutom visar de att feluppskattningen fortfarande är långt ifrån perfekt. Det har också visats att feluppskattningen av fordonets sidoaxel är mer komplex än i fallet med den längsgående axeln. Slutligen har ett starkt och positivt samband mellan fordonshastigheten och felet som görs av inriktningsalgoritmen hittats.

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The rapid growth of the electric power system has in recent decades resulted in an increase of the number of transmission lines and total power outage in Norway. The challenge of a fast growing electrical grid has also resulted in huge increases of overhead lines and their total length. These lines are experiencing faults due to various reasons that cause major disruptions and operating costs of the transmission system operator (TSO). Thus, it’s important that the location of faults is either known or can be estimated with reasonably high accuracy. This allows the grid owner to save money and time for inspection and repair, as well as to provide a better service due to the possibility of faster restoration of power supply and avoiding blackouts.  Fault detection and classification on transmission lines are important tasks in order to protect the electrical power system. In recent years, the power system has become more complicated under competitive and deregulated environments and a fast fault location technique is needed to maintain security and supply in the grid. This thesis compares and evaluates different methods for classification of fault type and calculation of conventional one-side and two-side based fault location algorithms for distance to fault estimation.  Different algorithm has been implemented, tested and verified to create a greater understanding of determinants facts that affect distance to faults algorithm’s accuracy.  Implemented algorithm has been tested on the data generated from a number of simulations in Simulink for a verification process in implemented algorithms accuracy. Two types of fault cases have also been simulated and compared for known distance to fault estimation.

En el presente trabajo se ha estudiado la problemática que algunos profesores de español en Suecia enfrentan al identificar y evaluar estrategias comunicativas en una prueba escrita por un alumno del nivel A2. Entrevistas cualitativas semiestructuradas han sido llevadas a cabo con seis profesores de seis escuelas suecas con el objetivo de resaltar sus pensamientos y experiencias acerca la identificación y la evaluación de las estrategias compensatorias léxicas en la comunicación escrita. El resultado de las respuestas analizadas destaca ciertos aspectos problemáticos que los informantes enfrentan al identificar y evaluar las estrategias que pueden resultar en una diferencia evaluativa a nivel nacional y afectar el principio de equidad establecido en la ley escolar sueca.