Šiame magistro baigiamajame darbe nagrinėjamas asmens autonomijos įgyvendinimo sutarčių teisėje ribų klausimas. Analizuojama, kokiais pagrindais bei instrumentais sutarčių laisvės principas, kaip asmens autonomijos sutarčių teisėje esmė, ribojamas teisės doktrinoje, teisės aktuose, įvairiuose neprivalomuose, tačiau itin aktualiuose sutarčių teisei dokumentuose bei teismų praktikoje. Darbe nagrinėjamas ribojimų pagrįstumas, tinkamumas, asmens autonomijos įgyvendinimo sutarčių teisėje ribų nustatymo tendencijos. Darbe iškelta hipotezė pasitvirtino. Solidarumo politikos įgyvendinimo sutarčių teisėje atvejų daugėja, ypač srityse, kuriose siekiama apsaugoti silpnosios sutarties šalies teises bei teisėtus interesus. Vis dėlto sutarčių laisvės principas nepraranda savo reikšmės ir išlieka kertine sutarčių teisės idėja. Jis pripažįstamas teises moksle, šiuo principu vis dar paremti sutarčių teisę reglamentuojantys teisės aktai bei rekomendacinio pobūdžio dokumentai, sutarčių laisvė akcentuojama ir teismų praktikoje. Galimybė subjektui funkcionuoti rinkoje be nepagrįstų ir neproporcingų apribojimų yra esminė efektyviai veikiančios ekonomikos sąlyga. Todėl asmens autonomijos įgyvendinimas sutarčių teisėje turėtų būti ribojamas tik tuomet, kai tokie suvaržymai yra būtini nustatytam tikslui pasiekti, ir tik tokiais būdais, kurie yra tinkami bei proporcingi. Formalūs bei griežti ribojimai turėtų būti išimtimi iš taisyklės. Teismo teisė bei pareiga kiekvieną atvejį vertinti... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / This master thesis analyses restrictions of the implementation of person’s autonomy in contract law. This thesis studies the basis and tools of limitations of freedom of contract, as the essence of the implementation of person’s autonomy in contract law. It analyses the restrictions of this principle in the doctrine of law, legislation, practice, as well, in non - mandatory documents, which are held to be very important to contract law. The hypothesis raised in this master thesis has been confirmed. The number of cases when the politics of solidarity is being implemented in contract law has been increasing. This is mostly typical to the areas, where the protection of rights and legitimate interests of weaker parties of contract is needed. However the freedom of contract is not losing its importance and still is the essential idea of contract law. It is recognized in the jurisprudence, the legislation, practice. Non - mandatory documents, significant to contract law, are also based on this principle. The possibility for person to function in market without any groundless and disproportionate limitations is an essential condition for efficiently operating economics. For this reason the implementation of person’s autonomy in contract law has to be restricted only when these restrictions are necessary and only using tools, which are reasonable and proportionate. Formal and severe limitations should be exception to the general rule. The right and duty of a court to evaluate every... [to full text]

Taking into account that preliminary sale - purchase agreement of real estate is an important and frequently used legal instrument in Lithuanian legal relationship but legal research on such agreement is poor, also case law on this issue is not consistent, this master thesis is analyzing the problems of practical use of preliminary sale – purchase agreement of real estate in Lithuanian civil legal relationship. The place of such agreement in pre-contractual and general civil legal relationship, the obligatory and other conditions of such agreement, civil liability for the breach of preliminary sale - purchase agreement of real estate, the interaction between the preliminary and primary agreement are also discussed in this master thesis. The main tendencies of application of the preliminary sale – purchase agreement of real estate in Lithuanian law and the basic elements of such agreement are described in this master thesis, also the definition of preliminary sale – purchase agreement of real estate is given. The evaluation of essential features which distinguish the preliminary sale – purchase agreement of real estate and primary sale - purchase agreement of real estate, also the criteria which allow to distinguish them are discussed. Also a great attention is paid to payments according to terms and conditions of the preliminary sale – purchase agreement of real estate. Security of obligation deriving from such agreement is also an object of this master thesis. On the basis... [to full text]

Freedom of contract and its limitations in incorporating juridical acts of capital companies Abstract The thesis on subject of Freedom of contract and its limitations in incorporating juridical acts of capital companies s is divided into two parts, general and special part. General part of this thesis focuses mainly on general limitations of freedom of contract in contract law. Freedom of contract is one of the primary principles of private law. Generally, the manifestation of freedom of contract on the constitutional level is the principle that allows to deviate from a statute with a juridical act unless it is forbidden by law. This core rule of freedom of contract in private law is stated in the provision sec. 1 (2) of Civil Code: "Unless expressly prohibited by a statute, persons can stipulate rights and duties by way of exclusion from a statute". In this provision we can also find the main limitations of freedom of contract: explicit prohibition in a statute, prohibition of stipulations contrary to good morals, public order or the law concerning the status of persons, including the right to protection of personality rights. Due to the main principles of private law (the principle of the autonomy of will and freedom of contract) private legal rules are generally considered to be directory. The legislator...

Franchisetagares underlägsna ställning gentemot franchisegivare är ett ämne som varit föremål för diskussion under de senaste decennierna. Franchising är en affärsmodell som förenklat kan beskrivas som en samarbetsform mellan näringsidkare där franchisetagare, mot ersättning, får nyttja ett av franchisegivaren etablerat och beprövat affärskoncept. Syftet med denna uppsats har varit att utreda och analysera franchisetagares rättsliga skydd i Sverige och vilka avtalsrätts- liga begränsningar de ska behöva acceptera för att kunna utöva sin grundlagsskyddade frihet att bedriva näringsverksamhet. Franchising som samarbetsform förenklar möjligheterna att tillträda marknaden eftersom fran- chisetagare erhåller en rätt att nyttja ett redan etablerat varumärke. Därutöver kan franchiseta- gare åtnjuta stordriftsfördelar, vilket är en fördel som andra nystartade småföretag inte erhåller. Trots att franchise i regel sänker inträdesbarriärerna till marknaden är franchisetagare genom franchiseavtalet begränsade i sina möjligheter att expandera verksamheten. För att kunna ex- pandera till nya geografiska marknader och produktmarknader krävs att parterna kommer över- ens om det. Även om franchisetagare kan vara begränsade till en viss marknad kan marknads- uppdelning vara positivt eftersom det tillförsäkrar franchisetagaren en ensamrätt att i ett visst geografiskt område nyttja affärskonceptet. Avtalsfriheten är en del av näringsfriheten och är en central och grundläggande frihet inom avtalsrätten. Trots detta är inte avtalsfriheten någon absolut rättighet utan den kan begränsas med hänsyn till allmänintresset. Att maktförhållandet i franchiserelationer är ojämnt och att franchisetagares handlingsfrihet är mer begränsad än vid andra samarbetsformer följer av af- färsmodellens utformning. Att bedriva företag som franchisetagare påverkar bland annat fri- heten att styra verksamhetens inriktning och möjligheterna att fortsätta driva verksamheten efter att avtalstiden löpt ut. Trots att huvudregeln är att avtalsvillkor mellan näringsidkare inte ska jämkas kan det med hänsyn till omständigheterna i det enskilda fallet vara motiverat att be- gränsa franchisegivarens avtalsfrihet med hänsyn till franchisetagares underlägsna ställning. Såväl på nationell som unionsrättslig nivå har det anförts att det finns ett behov av förstärkt skydd för franchisetagare. Bland annat har det ansetts finnas behov av ett utökat skydd vad gäller deras förhandlingsrätt, uppsägningsrätt och möjligheter att angripa oskäliga avtalsvillkor. I svensk rätt finns endast en franchisespecifik lag som infördes för att stärka franchisetagares ställning. Denna lag har dock aldrig tillämpats av allmän domstol och reglerar endast franchi- segivares skyldighet att lämna information innan ingående av avtal med franchisetagare. Likväl har den svenska lagstiftaren bedömt att det saknas behov av ytterligare reglering och att tvister kan hanteras inom ramen för befintlig lagstiftning. Dessutom har svenska domstolar varit för- siktiga med att oskälighetspröva avtalsvillkor mellan näringsidkare eftersom näringsverksam- het är ett medvetet risktagande. Trots detta har befintliga skyddsregler kritiserats för att vara innehållslösa och inte fylla något verkligt behov. För att lagstiftningen ska kunna konstateras vara proportionerlig och tillfredsställande bör den franchisespecifika regleringen samt franchi- setagares behov av utökat skydd ses över. / Franchisees inferior position towards franchisors is a topic that has been a subject of discussion for the past few decades. Franchising is a business model that can be simply described as a form of cooperation between business where franchisees, against compensation, can use a business concept established and proven by the franchisor. The aim of this essay has been to investigate and analyze the legal protection of franchisees in Sweden and which contractual limitations they should have to accept to be able to exercise their constitutionally protected freedom to conduct business. Franchising as a form of cooperation simplifies the opportunities to enter the market because franchisees receive a right to use an already known brand. In addition, franchisees can enjoy economies of scale, which is an advantage that other start-up small business do not receive. Although franchising generally lowers the entry barriers to the market, franchisees are limited in their opportunities to expand the business due to the franchise agreement. To be able to ex- pand into new geographic markets and product markets, it is required that the parties agree about it. Although franchisees may be limited to a certain market, market segmentation can be positive because it ensures the franchisee an exclusive right to use the business concept in a certain geographic area. The freedom of contract is part of the freedom to conduct a business and is a central and fun- damental freedom in contract law. Despite this, the freedom of contract is not an absolute right, it can be limited in consideration of the public interest. It follows from the design of the business model that the balance of power in franchise relationships is uneven and that franchisees free- dom of action is more limited than in other forms of cooperation. Conducting a business as a franchisee affects, among other things, the freedom to control the direction of the business and the possibilities of continuing to run the business after the contract period has expired. Although the main rule is that contractual terms between traders should not be equalized, considering the circumstances of the individual case, it may be justified to limit the franchisors freedom of contract regarding the inferior position of franchisees. Both at national and EU level, it has been argued that there is a need for enhanced protection for franchisees. Among other things, it has been considered that there is a need for extended protection in terms of their right to negotiate, right to terminate and opportunities to tackle unfair contract terms. In Swedish law, there is only one franchise-specific law that was intro- duced to strengthen the position of franchisees. However, this law has never been applied by a general court and only regulates the obligation of franchisors to provide information before entering into agreements with franchisees. Nevertheless, the Swedish legislator has assessed that there is no need for further regulation and that disputes can be handled within the frame- work of existing legislation. In addition, Swedish courts have been careful to test the unfairness of contractual terms between companies because business activity is a deliberate risk-taking. Despite this, existing protection rules have been criticized for being empty of substance and not fulfilling any real need. For the legislation to be found to be proportionate and satisfactory, the legal regulation as well as franchisees need for extended protection should be reviewed.

This thesis deals with the actual extent of contractual freedom in labor law relations from the theoretical perspective and from the perspective of its specific consequences in labor law as well. Therefore the thesis consists of two main parts. In part one, the thesis defines the legal principle concept and continues with the autonomy of the will characteristic, from which the contractual freedom principle derives, and then it describes its restrictions as a reset of both the principle of equality and the principle of protection of the weaker party to contract. As follows, the thesis deals with the position of labor law within the private law area, its historical development, the influence of the Constitutional Court decision no. 116/2008 Coll. and the adoption of the new Civil Code in terms of the labor law contractual freedom extent. The ending of the first part is dedicated to the modern "flexicurity" system that seeks to reach the balance between contractual freedom on one hand and an employee protection within labor law on the other hand. In its second part, the thesis aims to analyze particular appearances of contractual freedom within chosen labor law aspects as it both, shortly describes them and assesses them in terms of the space that they provide to contractual freedom and the amount of...

Notre thèse aborde la question des pourparlers précontractuels et la manière dont elle est régie en droit québécois. Actuellement, la loi générale des contrats n’évoque que de manière indirecte la période de négociation des contrats à travers notamment l’article 1375 du Code civil qui impose aux parties de respecter les exigences de la bonne foi dès la naissance d’une obligation. Un tel état du droit détonne quand on le compare avec les systèmes juridiques français ou allemand dans la mesure où ces derniers prévoient des dispositions légales explicites en la matière. Notre thèse insiste sur les difficultés pratiques et juridiques que soulève le droit positif québécois. Face à la complexification des contrats engendrée par l’internationalisation des échanges et la multiplication de ces derniers, le recours à des pourparlers s’est fortement généralisé et a généré un contentieux grandissant. Nous proposons donc de faire évoluer la lettre du Code civil du Québec afin que ce dernier encadre davantage la période précontractuelle en s’inspirant du droit français et du droit allemand. / Our thesis focuses on precontractual negotiations in Quebec Law. There are currently no specific rules related to precontractual negotiations in the general law of contracts. Only few rules can apply if we interprate them in a broader way they are supposed to, such as article 1375 that forces the parties to conduct themselves in good faith at the time the obligation arises. This state of law differs from both French and German legal systems where rules have been drafted to impact the way parties can act while they are negotiating a contract. Our thesis insists on practical and legal issues that arise from the way the law is actually built in Quebec. Because of the complexification of contracts linked to the internationalisation of exchanges and the multiplication of them, the phenomenon which consists on negotiating a contract appeared to be necessary and became the rule in the matter. It has, at the same time, generated an increasing litigation. Therefore, we defend the idea of a modification of the Quebec Civil Code in order to ensure that the precontractual period is taken more into account. In order to do so, we will study French and German law.

L'activité bancaire comporte nécessairement certains risques. Or, face au risque, le refus possède fondamentalement une vertu protectrice et est source de sécurité. Parce que le banquier est le premier à s’exposer aux risques, il semble naturel que la matière bancaire soit dominée par un principe de liberté, liberté de contracter, liberté d'entreprendre, liberté de prendre des risques et, partant, liberté de refuser. Toutefois, une propension du banquier à se surprotéger se révèlerait nocive pour le public, le refus étant naturellement source d’exclusion économique et sociale. En effet, il est impossible de nier le caractère indispensable des services bancaires pour tous les acteurs de la société. La liberté de refus du banquier doit donc être tempérée par la recherche d’un équilibre entre sa propre protection et la protection de sa clientèle réelle ou potentielle. De cette recherched’équilibre résultera alors une restriction certaine mais délimitée de sa liberté de refus de sorte qu'il sera, dans certaines hypothèses, débiteur d'un devoir de ne pas refuser. Dès lors, la liberté demeure le principe auquel il est dérogé par exception.Pour autant, le banquier n'est pas seul à prendre des risques. En effet, les contrats bancaires comportent des risques supportés par les cocontractants mais également par leurs créanciers, pourtant tiers aux contrats. C’est pourquoi, les cocontractants, souvent moins rompus que le banquier aux risques inhérents aux opérations de banque, et les tiers, ignorant généralement l’existence de ces risques, méritent d'être protégés. La recherche de sécurité pourrait alors prendre la forme d'une obligation au refus à la charge du banquier. Or, toute obligation au refus porte une atteinte évidente aux libertés du banquier et de ses cocontractants que seule la protection de l'intérêt général est véritablement en mesure de justifier. Toutefois, s’il existe, en droit positif, des hypothèses obligeant le banquier à refuser certaines opérations trop risquées, il semble qu’une obligation au refus en matière de crédit soit difficile voire impossible à dégager. Du reste, une telle obligation, pour morale qu’elle paraisse, ne serait pas souhaitable en ce qu’elle pourrait avoir pour conséquence de porter atteinte aux intérêts qu’elle prétendrait protéger. / Banking Business is subject to specific risks. Against these risks, the banker’s refusal seems to be an adequate means of protection and security.Since the banker is the first to expose himself to those risks, it seems natural that banking law is governed by a principle of freedom: freedom of contract, entrepreneurial freedom, freedom to take risks and consequently freedom to refuse. However, a banker’s tendency to overprotect himself would turn out to be detrimental to the public as such refusal can be a source of social and economic exclusion. Indeed, it is absolutely impossible to deny how vital the banking services are for all society actors. The banker’s freedom of refusal shall therefore be tempered by the search for an appropriate balance between his own protection and his existing or potential customers’ protection. Thus, certain and defined limitations to the banker’s freedom of refusal should result from this search for balance so that, under certain circumstances, a duty not to refuse could be imposed on the banker. In any event, freedom remains the principle while exceptions may be justified.Furthermore, the banker is not the only one to take risks. Indeed, banking contracts involve risks borne by his co-contractors and by their creditors, even though they are third parties to the agreement. That is why the co-contractors, often less experienced than the banker regarding the risks attached to bank operations, as well as the third parties to the agreement who are unaware of the existence of such risks deserve in this respect to be protected. The search for security could take the form of a refusal obligation imposed on the banker. However, as any obligation of refusal infringes on the banker’s and his co-contractors’ freedom, only the protection of the general interest would actually be able to justify such infringement. Though, even if there are indisputable assumptions where such an obligation of refusal exist under positive law, it appears that a general obligation of refusal shall be difficult, if not impossible, to identify. Such an obligation, although deemed moral, is undesirable as it could result in affecting the interests it sought to protect.

Nesta dissertação são analisados os contratos de lease-back perante a lei brasileira. Lease-back é uma modalidade de arrendamento mercantil financeiro em que o vendedor do bem e o arrendatário são a mesma pessoa jurídica. Desde 1930, teorias econômicas, políticas e jurídicas têm debatido a importância de propriedade e controle de bens no capitalismo, sendo hoje geralmente aceito que empresas não precisam ter a propriedade dos ativos para desenvolver suas atividades. Neste contexto, operações de lease-back podem ser usadas pelas empresas como uma fonte alternativa de financiamento, em que se dispõe do direito de propriedade sem perder o direito de usar e fruir dos ativos. O foco desta dissertação consiste em analisar (i) o que é um contrato de lease-back; (ii) os elementos de contratos de lease-back; e (iii) a legalidade de contratos de lease-back perante a lei brasileira, especialmente em vista da proibição do pacto comissório em direitos reais de garantia (penhor, hipoteca e anticrese) e na alienação fiduciária em garantia. / This dissertation analyzes lease-back agreements under Brazilian law. Lease-back is a type of finance lease (arrendamento mercantil financeiro) wherein the seller of the asset and the lessee are the same legal entity. Since 1930s economic, political and legal theories have debated the importance of ownership and control in capitalism and nowadays it is commonly accepted that companies do not need to retain ownership of their assets to develop their business. In this context, lease-back transactions can be used by companies as an alternative source of financing, by disposing of the ownership of their assets without losing the right to use them. The focus of this dissertation is to analyze (i) what is a leaseback agreement; (ii) the elements of lease-back agreements; and (iii) the legality of leaseback agreements under Brazilian law especially in view of potential violation to rules prohibiting pactum commissorium in agreements involving in rem security interests (pledge, mortgage and antichresis) or chattel mortgage (alienação fiduciária em garantia).

La formation du contrat suppose la rencontre de deux ou plusieurs volontés en vue de créer des effets de droit. Elle repose sur un échange de consentements des parties, dont est a priori exclue la figure du tiers. Le tiers est, en effet, classiquement défini par la négative en opposition aux parties, comme celui qui ne peut subir les effets du contrat ni profiter de ses bénéfices, car il n’y a pasconsenti. Toutefois, la présence des tiers lors de l'élaboration du contrat n'est pas inconnue en droit positif. Mais le délitement de l'Etat tiers garant du contrat et l'avènement de la contractualisation se sont accompagnés d'une multiplication de tiers intervenant au stade de la formation du contrat.L’objet de cette étude est de démontrer que l'intervention de tiers est de plus en plus sollicitée lors de la phase d'élaboration de l'accord. Le tiers ne doit plus être considéré seulement comme étant celui qui est étranger à la volonté des parties. Il influence, voire même, contraint cette volonté. Il semble important aujourd'hui d'élargir la qualité de tiers au contrat. Les interventions de tiers au stade de la formation de l'accord, qu'elles aient pour but de protéger les intérêts particuliers des contractants et/ou l'intérêt général, constituent une limite à la volonté autonome des individus et, par conséquent, restreignent la liberté contractuelle des contractants en influençant tant la rencontre des consentements que la détermination du contenu contractuel. / The formation of the contract requires the meeting of two or more minds in order to create legal effects. It is based on an exchange of the parties consent’, from which any third party is theorically excluded. The third party is, indeed, classically negatively defined by opposition towards the parties as one that cannot suffer the contract’s effects or enjoy its benefits because it has not consented to it. However, the presence of third parties during the agreement of the terms of the contract is not unknown in positive law. But the State disintegration as a third party guarantor of the contract, and the advent of contractualization, are accompanied by a proliferation of third party interventions during the contract formation stage. The purpose of this study is to demonstrate that third party interventions are increasingly requested during the formulation phase of the agreement. The third party should no longer beconsidered purely as an alien to the parties’ wills. It influences, and even, compels this will. Today it would seem important, in contract matters, to broaden the capacity of a third party. Third party interventions during the agreement formulation, whether to protect the interests of contracting parties and / or the public interest, constitute a restriction to people’s individual autonomy, and, therefore, limit contractual freedom by influencing both the meeting of theminds and the determination of contractual content.

Nesta dissertação são analisados os contratos de lease-back perante a lei brasileira. Lease-back é uma modalidade de arrendamento mercantil financeiro em que o vendedor do bem e o arrendatário são a mesma pessoa jurídica. Desde 1930, teorias econômicas, políticas e jurídicas têm debatido a importância de propriedade e controle de bens no capitalismo, sendo hoje geralmente aceito que empresas não precisam ter a propriedade dos ativos para desenvolver suas atividades. Neste contexto, operações de lease-back podem ser usadas pelas empresas como uma fonte alternativa de financiamento, em que se dispõe do direito de propriedade sem perder o direito de usar e fruir dos ativos. O foco desta dissertação consiste em analisar (i) o que é um contrato de lease-back; (ii) os elementos de contratos de lease-back; e (iii) a legalidade de contratos de lease-back perante a lei brasileira, especialmente em vista da proibição do pacto comissório em direitos reais de garantia (penhor, hipoteca e anticrese) e na alienação fiduciária em garantia. / This dissertation analyzes lease-back agreements under Brazilian law. Lease-back is a type of finance lease (arrendamento mercantil financeiro) wherein the seller of the asset and the lessee are the same legal entity. Since 1930s economic, political and legal theories have debated the importance of ownership and control in capitalism and nowadays it is commonly accepted that companies do not need to retain ownership of their assets to develop their business. In this context, lease-back transactions can be used by companies as an alternative source of financing, by disposing of the ownership of their assets without losing the right to use them. The focus of this dissertation is to analyze (i) what is a leaseback agreement; (ii) the elements of lease-back agreements; and (iii) the legality of leaseback agreements under Brazilian law especially in view of potential violation to rules prohibiting pactum commissorium in agreements involving in rem security interests (pledge, mortgage and antichresis) or chattel mortgage (alienação fiduciária em garantia).