This thesis explores the role of GBV in the decision-making process of Honduran women that migrate to the U.S. Drawing upon de Haas’s aspirations-capabilities framework, this study aims to understand women’s aspirations to migrate and their interplay within a broader societal context. The study relies on the use of semi-structured interviews to identify recurring themes in women’s narrated experiences and produce a nuanced understanding of how these experiences impacted their migration decisions. Findings reveal that GBV served as a point of inflection for Honduran women to migrate, motivated by the perceived risk of perpetual revictimization within an intrinsically patriarchal society. Furthermore, hopelessness in state institutions and social actors to change these power dynamics, proved influential in their lack of aspiration to return. This study contributes to the field of female international migration studies, and advocates for policy reform that addresses the prevailing issue of GBV in Honduras.

Research over the years has shown that there is a global rise in hashtag activism, this type of activism has also inspired what scholars call - hashtag feminism. Hashtag feminism utilizes Social Networking Sites to raise awareness about issues that are often not covered in traditional news media outlets such as TV, newspapers, and Radio Stations. Through this paper, I seek to investigate how Instagram has become one of the Social Networking Sites that has recently started being used for online activism in South Africa. This is done by conducting a qualitative analysis of 700 posts from the hashtag #AmINext, with a period focus of 3 months during South Africa's COVID-19 Level-5 Lockdown. The findings suggest that activists follow similar lines of the hashtag and social media activism parameters such as those of the #MeToo and #BeenRapedNeverReported movements. The analysis found that activists use Instagram to participate in Citizen Journalism by sharing information, raising awareness, organizing, mobilizing, and advocating (Vegh, 2003). Furthermore, there is clear Civic Engagement and Citizen Journalism through things such as sharing information and having calls to action while utilizing hashtags as a way to gain momentum and attention. The findings suggest that these hashtags are able to cultivate a community of activists all around the country while also making sure to encourage more participation. The analysis also shows how there is an importance of such activism when movement is restricted due to national Lockdowns implemented to curb COVID-19, as many victims of SGBV found themselves at home and trapped with their abusers. In paying attention to this analysis, I conclude that perhaps through the exploration of new ways of activism, we can ensure that no voice is ever left behind. Furthermore, despite the possibilities of these new ways of raising awareness and activism, it is always important to see how we can apply the old with the new.

Contents of the present thesis were published in the following articles. 1. Suzuki S, Mori K, Higashino A, Iwasaki Y, Yasutomi Y, Maki N, Akari H. 2016. Persistent replication of a hepatitis C virus genotype 1b-based chimeric clone carrying E1, E2 and p6 regions from GB virus B in a New World monkey. Microbiol Immunol 60:26-34. Copyright © 1999-2016 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.2. Yoshida T, Suzuki S, Iwasaki Y, Kaneko A, Saito A, Enomoto Y, Higashino A, Watanabe A, Suzuki J, Inoue K, Kuroda T, Takada M, Ito R, Ito M, Akari H. 2013. Efficient in vivo depletion of CD8+ T lymphocytes in common marmosets by novel CD8 monoclonal antibody administration. Immunol Lett 154:12-17.Copyright © 2013 Elsevier B. V. / 京都大学 / 0048 / 新制・課程博士 / 博士(理学) / 甲第19546号 / 理博第4206号 / 新制||理||1604(附属図書館) / 32582 / 京都大学大学院理学研究科生物科学専攻 / (主査)教授 明里 宏文, 教授 岡本 宗裕, 教授 中村 克樹 / 学位規則第4条第1項該当 / Doctor of Science / Kyoto University / DFAM

Le rapport de pouvoir qui régit les relations entre homme et femme engendre des inégalités qui sont la non-effectivité des droits des femmes, les stéréotypes ciblant souvent les femmes et les violences à l’égard des femmes. Ces inégalités notables en période normale ou de paix s’aggravent durant les crises sociopolitiques et de conflits armés où la violence sexospécifique est désormais érigée en arme de guerre pour détruire l’adversaire, son identité et son peuple. L’objectif de ces recherches est de relever les impacts, les enjeux du genre et de la réalité identitaire dans les crises et conflits tout comme dans le processus d’édification de la paix. A travers la vie sociopolitique du Togo et de la Côte d’Ivoire pris pour cas d’espèce, il s’agit d’observer la situation de crises et de conflits armés dans un pays, l’impact des appartenances identitaires et l’aggravation de l’inégalité du genre, puis relever les conséquences des crises et l’importance des femmes dont la négligence participe à l’échec des processus de paix, enfin viser la prise en compte des identités et du genre dans les processus de recherches de la paix. / The power dynamics that govern the relationship between man and woman creates inequalities that are the non-effectiveness of the rights of women, the stereotypes often associated to women as well as violence against them. These significant inequalities in normal times or peace times, worsen during the sociopolitical crises and armed conflicts where gender based violence (GBV) is now established as a weapon of war to destroy the opponent, its identity and its people. The objective of this research is to address the impacts, issues of gender and identity during crises and conflicts as well as during peacebuilding processes. Using the socio-political life of Togo and Côte d'Ivoire as case studies, the research seeks to observe the situation of crisis and armed conflict in a country, the impact of belonging to an identity, and the worsening of gender inequality and addresses the consequences of the crises and the importance of women whose negligence contributes to the failure of peace processes, and finally aims at the inclusion of identity and gender as important considerations in peacebuilding process.

A epidemia HIV/AIDS é um grave problema de saúde enfrentado no Brasil e no mundo. Desde o surgimento do vírus, na década de 80, muitos esforços foram realizados para esclarecer o curso da infecção que resulta no comprometimento do sistema imune em indivíduos sem tratamento. A ativação imune crônica pode levar a um status de imunossenescência exacerbada, morte celular, alteração da resposta imune e uma imunodeficiência generalizada. Percebe-se que diversos fatores do hospedeiro interferem na progressão para Aids, como deleção de 32 pares de base do gene CCR5 (CCR5delta32), perfis de HLA desfavoráveis (*B35) e coinfecções, principalmente citomegalovírus, tuberculose e hepatites B e C. Estudos recentes com o GBV-C, pertencente à família Flaviviridae, gênero Pegivirus, possibilitaram uma nova perspectiva no entendimento do curso da infecção causada pelo HIV, uma vez que nenhuma doença foi relacionada à presença do vírus GB tipo C, além de promover um atraso na progressão para a Aids e aumento da sobrevida dos pacientes portadores do vírus. Assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar o perfil de ativação, senescência e exaustão celular em indivíduos recém-infectados pelo HIV-1 e coinfectados pelo GBVC. Foram investigados a contagem de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+, razão CD4/CD8, presença do GBV-C e HIV-1, além da análise da expressão de marcadores de ativação (CCR5, CD38 e HLA-DR), senescência e exaustão celular (PD-1, CD95, CD57 e CD28). Diante dos critérios de inclusão do estudo, foram selecionados nove pacientes com infecção persistente com o vírus GBV-C para o grupo 1 (HIV-1+/GBV-C+), e oito pacientes sem viremia para GBV-C foram incluídos no grupo 2 (HIV-1+/GBV-C-), sendo a média de idade dos pacientes selecionados de 31,6 e 31,7 anos, respectivamente, sexo masculino e homens que fazem sexo com homens (HSH). Na visita de inclusão no estudo (V1) nenhum dos dados analisados (células T CD4+ e CD8+, carga viral e razão CD4/CD8) apresentou diferença estatística, assim como os marcadores de ativação, senescência e exaustão celular. Na análise longitudinal da diferença (deltaVn-V1), percebeu-se uma diminuição dos marcadores de ativação e senescência no grupo HIV-1+/GBV-C +, sem significância estatística entre esses dados. Foi observado, contudo, que houve uma diminuição de células T CD4+ e CD8+ naïve no grupo HIV-1+/GBV-C+, também notou-se redução na subpopulação de células T CD8+ naïve e memória central expressando CD28, houve uma diminuição das subpopulações de memória intermediária e efetora terminal, assim como na subpopulação efetora terminal expressando HLA-DR+, no grupo HIV-1+/GBV-C+. Os resultados demonstraram que a infecção pelo GBV-C reflete na diminuição da estimulação imune, ativação celular e também na redução de marcadores de senescência e exaustão celular nas subpopulações de células T, sugerindo um envolvimento na modulação da progressão do HIV / The HIV/AIDS epidemic is a serious health problem in Brazil and in the world. Since its emergence in the 1980s, many efforts have been made to understand this infection, resulting in a compromised immune system if left untreated. Chronic immune activation may lead to exacerbated immunosenescence, cell death, altered immune response, and a generalized immunodeficiency. Several host factors play an important role in the progression to AIDS, such as the 32 base pairs deletion in the CCR5 gene (CCR5delta32), unfavorable HLA molecules (*B35), and coinfections, mainly cytomegalovirus, tuberculosis, and hepatitis B and C. Recent studies with the GBV-C (Flaviviridae family, genus Pegivirus) have provided a new perspective in the understanding of the HIV infection natural history. GBV-C coinfection delays progression to Aids and increases patient survival. In addition, no symptoms have been associated to its occurrence. The aim of this study was to evaluate the profile of cellular activation, senescence, and exhaustion in recently HIV-infected individuals coinfected with GBVC. Patients were selected from a prospective cohort diagnosed with recent HIV-1 infection with known results for levels of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, CD4/CD8 ratio, GBV-C plasma levels, HIV-1 plasma viremia, and markers for cellular activation (CCR5, CD38, and HLA-DR) and senescence and exhaustion (PD-1, CD95, CD28, and CD57). Nine presented persistent GBV-C infection and were selected for group 1 (HIV- 1/GBV-C+), mean age of 31.6 years. Another set of eight patients without GBV-C viremia were selected as controls and included in group 2 (HIV-1/GBV-C-), mean age of 31.7 years. All participants were male, in most cases men who have sex with men (MSM). At baseline visit (V1), no variable (levels of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes, viral load, CD4/CD8 ratio, and cellular activation, senescence, and exhaustion markers) presented no statistical significant differences, suggesting that all selected patients shared similar characteristics. Longitudinal analysis (delta, Vn-V1) revealed a nonsignificant decrease in activation and senescence markers for both groups. However, it was observed a decrease in naïve CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in group 1, and also a reduction in the subpopulations of naïve and central memory (CD28+) CD8+ T cells. The HIV+/GBV-C+ group also presented diminished intermediate memory and terminal effector subpopulations, as well a decrease in HLA-DR+ terminal effector cells. The data demonstrate that GBV-C infection results in reduced immune stimulation, cellular senescence, and cell exhaustion, suggesting an involvement in the modulation of HIV progression

El virus C (GBV-C) o virus de la hepatitis G (HGV) está relacionado con el virus de la hepatitis C (HCV) ya que tiene una organización genómica y una homología en la secuencia muy próxima pero, sin embargo, no parece causar hepatitis ni ningún otro tipo de patología. En los últimos años, se han publicado numerosos trabajos en los que se asocia la co-infección del GBV-C/HGV y el virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana (VIH) con una menor progresión de la enfermedad causada por el virus VIH así como con una mayor supervivencia de los pacientes una vez que el SIDA se ha desarrollado. Basándonos en un modelo de co-infección, existen diversas teorías de cómo el virus de la hepatitis G puede influir en la enfermedad del VIH, se cree que puede inducir las quemoquinas, regular negativamente los co-receptores del VIH, así como provocar otros efectos indefinidos en los linfocitos huésped. Pero el mecanismo responsable del efecto beneficioso que el GBV-C/HGV tiene sobre el curso de la infección causada por VIH no está todavía definido. Teniendo en cuenta el posible uso de los péptidos sintéticos, el objetivo de la actual tesis doctoral es llevar a cabo la selección de péptidos de la proteína de envoltura E1 del GBV-C/HGV con potencial capacidad de inhibición del péptido de fusión del VIH-1, mediante la síntesis múltiple en paralelo de secuencias peptídicas lineales que cubren la totalidad de la estructura primaria de esta proteína y su posterior evaluación mediante ensayos biofísicos. Con ello se pretende plantear la utilización de péptidos sintéticos del GBV-C/HGV en el diseño de inhibidores de la entrada del VIH en la célula huésped. Se pretende así tratar de comprender mejor el efecto de la presencia de anticuerpos anti-GBV-C/HGV en la progresión de la enfermedad causada por la infección del VIH y de profundizar en el conocimiento actual acerca de la interacción entre estos dos virus. Se realiza la síntesis en fase sólida de 58 péptidos correspondientes a la proteína de envoltura E1 del GBV-C/HGV y mediante el ensayo de liberación de contenidos vesiculares se seleccionan 5 péptidos capaces de inhibir la capacidad del péptido de fusión (PF) del VIH-1 de formar poros en las membranas. Se realizan estudios detallados de los péptidos y de la inhibición del proceso de fusión, inducido por el péptido de fusión del VIH-1, por parte de secuencias del GBV-C/HGV. Para ello se realizan estudios de citotoxicidad, ensayos de hemólisis, estudio de la estructura mediante dicroísmo circular, ensayos de agregación de liposomas inducida por los péptidos y ensayos de transferencia de energía por resonancia. Por otra parte se realizan ensayos utilizando monocapas de extensión como modelos de membrana mediante la técnica de Langmuir-Blodgett, y se calculan las concentraciones superficial de exceso y las de saturación, información que servirá para conocer la capacidad de los péptidos para formar monocapas estables en la interfase aire/agua. Los diferentes ensayos muestran una interacción de los péptidos de la proteína E1 con el péptido de fusión del VIH-1, dando lugar a una inhibición de la actividad que el péptido de fusión del VIH-1 tiene sobre las membranas lipídicas. Esto sugiere que estos péptidos pueden ser candidatos para ser utilizados en futuras terapias antivirales. / "BIOPHYSICAL STUDIES OF SYNTHETIC PEPTIDES OF THE ENVELOPE PROTEIN E1 OF GBV-C/HGV AND ITS RELATIONSHIP WITH HIV" The virus C (GBV-C) or hepatitis G virus (HGV) is related to hepatitis C virus (HCV) because it has similar genome organization and sequence homology; however, it does not seem to cause hepatitis or any other pathology. In recent years, there have been several studies in which the GBV-C/HGV and human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) co-infection is associated with less progression of the disease caused by HIV as well as improved survival of patients after AIDS has developed. Based on a model of co-infection, there are several theories of how the hepatitis G virus can affect HIV disease: it could induce chemokines, negatively regulate the HIV co-receptors and cause other undefined effects in the host cell. But the mechanism responsible for the beneficial effect that GBV-C/HGV has over the course of infection by HIV is not yet defined. Taking into account the possible use of synthetic peptides, the aim of the present thesis is to carry out the selection of peptides from the envelope protein E1 of GBV-C/HGV with potential ability to inhibit the HIV-1fusion peptide. The aim is to better understand the effect of the presence of antibodies anti-GBV-C/HGV in the progression of AIDS and to study the interaction between these two viruses. The solid phase synthesis of 58 peptides corresponding to the envelope protein E1 of GBV-C/HGV was made and 5 peptides capable of inhibiting the ability of the fusion peptide (FP) of HIV-1 to form pores in membranes were selected by means of the leakage of vesicular contents assay. Detailed studies of the E1 peptides and their ability to inhibit the fusion process induced by the fusion peptide of HIV-1 were done. Monolayers and liposomes were used as model membranes. The different tests show an interaction of the E1 peptides with the HIV-1fusion peptide, resulting in an inhibition of the activity that the fusion peptide has on lipid membranes. This suggests that these peptides could be good candidates for future antiviral therapies.

This research examines the practice of Female Genital Mutilation/Circumcision (FGM/C) as a social phenomenon in Singida Region, Tanzania. The aim is to contribute to a deepened cultural anthropological understanding of the function and meaning behind the practice in Singida, and how it reacts to external factors of change, such as human rights-based laws and projects aiming to eradicate FGM/C. This was done by conducting an ethnographic field study, with the help of staff members from the Christian Council of Tanzania (CCT). Through the theoretical framework, aiming to grasp the complexity of FGM/C, aspects such as visible and invisible violence, patriarchal structures, social schemes, anomalies, change and rites, were analyzed on the collected material consisting of semi-structured interviews and participatory observations. From the conducted analysis, it was shown that FGM/C was a deeply imbedded cultural practice which purpose is to (1) enable women to consolidate to womanhood and ensure a full membership in society and (2) cure girls from a disease known as lawalawa. This is because the clitoris is believed to be connected to diseases and to enhance the risk of abnormal behavior that does not belong to womanhood. The thesis shows how lawalawa was fabricated as a reaction towards the ban on FGM/C in Tanzania and how it was used to (unknowingly or knowingly) justify the continuance of the practice. It was also showed that members of societies who engage in FGM/C, are likely to avoid abandoning FGM/C if possible, however change is achievable if it is implemented in a sensitive way with knowledge on local reaction towards external factors of change.

A epidemia HIV/AIDS é um grave problema de saúde enfrentado no Brasil e no mundo. Desde o surgimento do vírus, na década de 80, muitos esforços foram realizados para esclarecer o curso da infecção que resulta no comprometimento do sistema imune em indivíduos sem tratamento. A ativação imune crônica pode levar a um status de imunossenescência exacerbada, morte celular, alteração da resposta imune e uma imunodeficiência generalizada. Percebe-se que diversos fatores do hospedeiro interferem na progressão para Aids, como deleção de 32 pares de base do gene CCR5 (CCR5delta32), perfis de HLA desfavoráveis (*B35) e coinfecções, principalmente citomegalovírus, tuberculose e hepatites B e C. Estudos recentes com o GBV-C, pertencente à família Flaviviridae, gênero Pegivirus, possibilitaram uma nova perspectiva no entendimento do curso da infecção causada pelo HIV, uma vez que nenhuma doença foi relacionada à presença do vírus GB tipo C, além de promover um atraso na progressão para a Aids e aumento da sobrevida dos pacientes portadores do vírus. Assim, o objetivo desse estudo foi avaliar o perfil de ativação, senescência e exaustão celular em indivíduos recém-infectados pelo HIV-1 e coinfectados pelo GBVC. Foram investigados a contagem de linfócitos T CD4+ e CD8+, razão CD4/CD8, presença do GBV-C e HIV-1, além da análise da expressão de marcadores de ativação (CCR5, CD38 e HLA-DR), senescência e exaustão celular (PD-1, CD95, CD57 e CD28). Diante dos critérios de inclusão do estudo, foram selecionados nove pacientes com infecção persistente com o vírus GBV-C para o grupo 1 (HIV-1+/GBV-C+), e oito pacientes sem viremia para GBV-C foram incluídos no grupo 2 (HIV-1+/GBV-C-), sendo a média de idade dos pacientes selecionados de 31,6 e 31,7 anos, respectivamente, sexo masculino e homens que fazem sexo com homens (HSH). Na visita de inclusão no estudo (V1) nenhum dos dados analisados (células T CD4+ e CD8+, carga viral e razão CD4/CD8) apresentou diferença estatística, assim como os marcadores de ativação, senescência e exaustão celular. Na análise longitudinal da diferença (deltaVn-V1), percebeu-se uma diminuição dos marcadores de ativação e senescência no grupo HIV-1+/GBV-C +, sem significância estatística entre esses dados. Foi observado, contudo, que houve uma diminuição de células T CD4+ e CD8+ naïve no grupo HIV-1+/GBV-C+, também notou-se redução na subpopulação de células T CD8+ naïve e memória central expressando CD28, houve uma diminuição das subpopulações de memória intermediária e efetora terminal, assim como na subpopulação efetora terminal expressando HLA-DR+, no grupo HIV-1+/GBV-C+. Os resultados demonstraram que a infecção pelo GBV-C reflete na diminuição da estimulação imune, ativação celular e também na redução de marcadores de senescência e exaustão celular nas subpopulações de células T, sugerindo um envolvimento na modulação da progressão do HIV / The HIV/AIDS epidemic is a serious health problem in Brazil and in the world. Since its emergence in the 1980s, many efforts have been made to understand this infection, resulting in a compromised immune system if left untreated. Chronic immune activation may lead to exacerbated immunosenescence, cell death, altered immune response, and a generalized immunodeficiency. Several host factors play an important role in the progression to AIDS, such as the 32 base pairs deletion in the CCR5 gene (CCR5delta32), unfavorable HLA molecules (*B35), and coinfections, mainly cytomegalovirus, tuberculosis, and hepatitis B and C. Recent studies with the GBV-C (Flaviviridae family, genus Pegivirus) have provided a new perspective in the understanding of the HIV infection natural history. GBV-C coinfection delays progression to Aids and increases patient survival. In addition, no symptoms have been associated to its occurrence. The aim of this study was to evaluate the profile of cellular activation, senescence, and exhaustion in recently HIV-infected individuals coinfected with GBVC. Patients were selected from a prospective cohort diagnosed with recent HIV-1 infection with known results for levels of CD4+ and CD8+ T lymphocytes, CD4/CD8 ratio, GBV-C plasma levels, HIV-1 plasma viremia, and markers for cellular activation (CCR5, CD38, and HLA-DR) and senescence and exhaustion (PD-1, CD95, CD28, and CD57). Nine presented persistent GBV-C infection and were selected for group 1 (HIV- 1/GBV-C+), mean age of 31.6 years. Another set of eight patients without GBV-C viremia were selected as controls and included in group 2 (HIV-1/GBV-C-), mean age of 31.7 years. All participants were male, in most cases men who have sex with men (MSM). At baseline visit (V1), no variable (levels of CD4+ and CD8+ lymphocytes, viral load, CD4/CD8 ratio, and cellular activation, senescence, and exhaustion markers) presented no statistical significant differences, suggesting that all selected patients shared similar characteristics. Longitudinal analysis (delta, Vn-V1) revealed a nonsignificant decrease in activation and senescence markers for both groups. However, it was observed a decrease in naïve CD4+ and CD8+ T cells in group 1, and also a reduction in the subpopulations of naïve and central memory (CD28+) CD8+ T cells. The HIV+/GBV-C+ group also presented diminished intermediate memory and terminal effector subpopulations, as well a decrease in HLA-DR+ terminal effector cells. The data demonstrate that GBV-C infection results in reduced immune stimulation, cellular senescence, and cell exhaustion, suggesting an involvement in the modulation of HIV progression

Gender-based violence (GBV) has been used as a tool of instilling fear, hatred and persecution during conflict situations. It is a fact that GBV takes place pre-conflict situations. Moreover, conflicts and wars only accelerate the rate at which GBV is committed. In the 1990s and early 2000s, there was conflict in the Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone. These conflicts went down in history as conflicts where horrendous crimes were committed. As a result of the atrocities committed and the magnitude of victims, the international community with the assistance of the United Nations formed the International Criminal Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia (ICTY), the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda (ICTR) and the Special Court for Sierra Leone. These international tribunals were given the task of prosecuting the perpetrators of these crimes. Prior to the formation of these tribunals, the international community had experienced other wars whereby international tribunals were also formed to deal with the atrocities committed. However, this research only aims at comparatively analysing the ICTY, TCTR and the SCSL because these new tribunals were the first in experiencing the development of the prosecution of GBV. The former international tribunals did not effectively deal with gendered crimes therefore there was no precedent set in international law regarding the prosecutions of these crimes. The conflicts that occurred in the Former Yugoslavia, Rwanda and Sierra Leone also saw the introduction of more brutal forms of GBV. These forms of GBV that developed forced the tribunals to change the way they prosecuted gender-based crimes because the nature and the magnitude at which the crimes were committed was massive. Forms of GBV that were earlier recognised such as rape and sexual violence were now being used as a means through which the perpetrators committed war crimes, crimes against humanity and genocide. The comparative analysis between the ICTR, the ICTY and the SCSL also aims at showing how the different challenges and hurdles that these courts faced when prosecuting these crimes. The pitfalls that the tribunals experienced at the pre-trial phase are also investigated and critically analysed with the aim of drawing lessons about mistakes that should not be repeated in newer international tribunals. A comparative analysis will also be done on the different precedents that were set by the cases that were heard in these tribunals with the aim of showing how these tribunals have indeed contributed to the development of the prosecution of these types of crimes. Finally, recommendations will be made regarding how future international tribunals better deal with these crimes. The research paper also aims at creating awareness that these types of crimes must be treated differently and with caution because the effects that the victims suffer from last way after the conflicts and trials are over. Lessons must be carried from past prosecutions in order to correct and better improve the way in which the prosecutions are carried out and also the way in which the different victims are treated even after the prosecutions have been completed. / Dissertation (LLM)--University of Pretoria, 2011. / Public Law / unrestricted

Female genital cutting is a problem that has taken several dimensions and continues to be practiced despite enormous efforts and resources invested by governments,non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and other stakeholders to ensure that the practice is discontinued worldwide. This study was conducted with the primary objective of assessing the views and perceptions of NGOs on the practice of female genital cutting in Nigeria. The study also examines efforts by civil society and the Nigerian government towards combating and eliminating the practice of FMC in Nigeria. Aside from the systematic literature review, a case study of ten NGOs were interviewed on the telephone. Findings indicate that girls being kept pure as virgins, protection of girls' reproductive potential, increase in fertility, aiding marriageability, traditional practice, and keeping with lineage practice are responsibile for the practice in Nigeria. Few theories were reviewed, and research questions were designed in line with the theories. The approaches include the Functionalist theory, cultural relativism, social theory and Feminism.