In this article, the author tells us about the precedent along with its characteristics, as well as its role in the law. He tells us, also, about the situation of a precedent ruled by an International Court and its implications in the domestic law of each country. Likewise, he defines what is not a precedent and points us how effective is in the Law. Finally, he points us about the particularity and the universalism in the precedents, then he gave us his final thought of this theme. / En el presente artículo, el autor nos habla acerca del precedente y sus características, así como de su papel en el Derecho. Asimismo, profundiza la situación de un precedente emitido por una Corte Internacional y sus implicancias en el derecho interno de cada país. Asimismo, define qué no es un precedente y nos señala cuál es su eficacia en el Derecho. Finalmente, nos menciona acerca de la particularidad y el universalismo en los precedentes, para luego dar su reflexión final sobre el tema.

A insegurança jurídica é uma das grandes preocupações do Direito, especialmente do Direito Processual. O mesmo ocorre com o Direito Eleitoral e o Direito Processual Eleitoral, que estão, essencialmente, imbricados, em uma fase metodológica que não discrepa do arcaico sincretismo do Direito Processual. Para que tão relevante ramo do Direito evolua, faz-se necessário o estudo da segurança jurídica, das fases metodológicas do processo e da Teoria Geral do Processo. Assim, é possível demonstrar o estágio em que se encontra e a imprescindibilidade de desenvolvimento de um Direito Processual Eleitoral. A partir de tais premissas, é que se faz imperiosa a efetiva construção de um Direito Processual Eleitoral, o que fica ainda mais perceptível com o estudo de inúmeros exemplos de insegurança legislativa e jurisprudencial. Nesse contexto, o Direito Processual Eleitoral demanda uma construção legislativa, com a sistematização e consolidação normativa, bem como necessita de uma construção doutrinária, a ser elaborada a partir da ferramenta constitucional dos direitos fundamentais e da ferramenta conceitual da Teoria Geral do Processo, a permitir a mitigação da insegurança jurídica existente. / The lack of legal certainty is one of the major concerns of Law, mainly of Procedural Law. The same happens with Electoral Law and Electoral Procedural Law, which are, essentially imbricated at a methodological phase that does not differ from the archaic syncretism of Procedural Law. In order to make such important area of Law develop, it becomes necessary to study the legal certainty, the methodological phases of the procedure and the General Theory of Procedure. This way, it is possible to identify the stage in which the indispensability of development of an Electoral Procedural Law is. On these grounds it is of foremost importance the effective construction of an Electoral Procedural Law. This becomes even more noticeable through the study of many examples of legislative and jurisprudential lack of security. In such context, the Electoral Procedural Law demands a legislative construction, with its normative systematization and consolidation, as well as the need of a doctrine construction, to be developed from a constitutional tool of fundamental rights and a conceptual tool of General Theory of Procedure, so as to allow the mitigation of the lack of legal certainty existent.

Le droit des Affaires en Afrique se présente comme un labyrinthe en face duquel on manifeste des velléités à s’introduire. En effet, on y remarque une superposition de normes découlant d’une diversité d’instruments juridiques. Cette diversité n’est que la résultante d’une panoplie de zones économiques (UEMOA, CEMAC, CEDEAO notamment), une sorte de plusieurs unions européennes reposant sur deux systèmes juridiques fondamentaux qui coexistent : «Droit civil et Common Law». Il y a donc une difficulté, considérablement résorbée, mais loin d’être achevée liée à l’insécurité juridique voire judiciaire. Dans le but de constituer un point d’attraction aux investisseurs étrangers en particulier, et dans un souci de contribution à l’œuvre d’ «uniformisation» et non de simple harmonisation du droit des affaires qu’a amorcé le législateur de l’OHADA depuis le 17 octobre 1993 à Port-Louis en Ile-Maurice, en mettant en place le Traité constitutif de l’Organisation pour l’Harmonisation en Afrique du droit des Affaires, il nous paraît impératif et opportun d’élaborer et de consolider une théorie générale relative aux contrats. La théorie générale dans le cadre de nos travaux se limitera aux contrats d’affaires car nous partons du postulat que cette catégorie de contrats constitue le socle de toutes opérations économiques. La théorie générale des contrats d’affaires reviendrait alors à mettre en place un droit commun des contrats d’affaires dans l’espace OHADA. Ladite théorie générale des contrats d’affaires doit trouver son ancrage dans les dispositions préexistantes sans toutefois renoncer à l’introduction de nouvelles règles susceptibles de contribuer à son succès. Elles doivent cependant, afin d’être efficaces voire effectives, rester compatibles avec les différents Actes uniformes de l’OHADA, œuvre ingénieuse déjà accomplie par le législateur de l’OHADA et surtout ne pas rejeter l’héritage du système juridique français. Notre réflexion trouvera son socle dans une étude du droit positif de l’OHADA et français, et, du droit prospectif émanant des avant-projets du droit des contrats d’une part, mais également de divers autres instruments juridiques d’autre part, qui nous permettront d’établir les normes juridiques voire les mesures devant prévaloir dans les relations contractuelles d’affaires de l’OHADA, de faire ressortir l’homogénéité, l’unicité ou la diversité de ce système contractuel d’affaires, de faire remarquer la relation fidèle ou non qu’entretient l’OHADA avec le système juridique français. / The business Law in Africa appears as a labyrinth in front of which we show vague desires to get. Actually we notice a superimposing of resulting standards from a diversity of legal instruments. The diversity is the resultant of an outfit of economic zones (UEMOA,CEMAC, ECOWAS, in particular), a kind of several European unions based on two fundamental legal systems which coexist : Civil Law and Common law. So, there is a difficulty considerably reduced, but far from being finished inherent to the even judicial legal insecurity. With the aim of establishing a point of attraction to the foreign investors especially, and in a concern of contribution to the work of «standardization» and not simple harmonization of the business law which the legislator of OHADA has begun since October 17th 1993, at Port-Louis in Ile-Maurice, by setting up the Treaty of the Organization of the harmonization of Busines law in Africa, it seems to us imperative and convenient to develop and strenghen a general theory relative to contracts. The general theory within the framework of our researches will limit itself to business contracts because we start from the postulate that this category of contracts constitutes the base of any economic operations. The general theory of business contracts would then mean setting up a common law of business contracts in OHADA area. The aformentionned general theory of business contracts has to fin its anchoring in the pre-existent measures without giving up the introduction of new rules susceptible to contribute to its success. However they have to remain compatible with the various uniform Acts of the OHADA, the ingenious work already achieved by the legislator ofthe OHADA and especially not reject the inheritance of the french legal system in order to be effective. Our reflection will find its base in the study of substantive law of the OHADA and French, and, the forward-looking law emanating from drafts from the contract law on one hand, but also from miscellaneous other legal instruments on the other hand, which will allow us to establish the legal rules even the measures that must prevail in the contractual business relationsof the OHADA, to highlight the homogeneity, the uniqueness or the diversity of this contractual business system, to point out the faithful relation or not that the OHADA with the french legal system maintains.

A insegurança jurídica é uma das grandes preocupações do Direito, especialmente do Direito Processual. O mesmo ocorre com o Direito Eleitoral e o Direito Processual Eleitoral, que estão, essencialmente, imbricados, em uma fase metodológica que não discrepa do arcaico sincretismo do Direito Processual. Para que tão relevante ramo do Direito evolua, faz-se necessário o estudo da segurança jurídica, das fases metodológicas do processo e da Teoria Geral do Processo. Assim, é possível demonstrar o estágio em que se encontra e a imprescindibilidade de desenvolvimento de um Direito Processual Eleitoral. A partir de tais premissas, é que se faz imperiosa a efetiva construção de um Direito Processual Eleitoral, o que fica ainda mais perceptível com o estudo de inúmeros exemplos de insegurança legislativa e jurisprudencial. Nesse contexto, o Direito Processual Eleitoral demanda uma construção legislativa, com a sistematização e consolidação normativa, bem como necessita de uma construção doutrinária, a ser elaborada a partir da ferramenta constitucional dos direitos fundamentais e da ferramenta conceitual da Teoria Geral do Processo, a permitir a mitigação da insegurança jurídica existente. / The lack of legal certainty is one of the major concerns of Law, mainly of Procedural Law. The same happens with Electoral Law and Electoral Procedural Law, which are, essentially imbricated at a methodological phase that does not differ from the archaic syncretism of Procedural Law. In order to make such important area of Law develop, it becomes necessary to study the legal certainty, the methodological phases of the procedure and the General Theory of Procedure. This way, it is possible to identify the stage in which the indispensability of development of an Electoral Procedural Law is. On these grounds it is of foremost importance the effective construction of an Electoral Procedural Law. This becomes even more noticeable through the study of many examples of legislative and jurisprudential lack of security. In such context, the Electoral Procedural Law demands a legislative construction, with its normative systematization and consolidation, as well as the need of a doctrine construction, to be developed from a constitutional tool of fundamental rights and a conceptual tool of General Theory of Procedure, so as to allow the mitigation of the lack of legal certainty existent.

A insegurança jurídica é uma das grandes preocupações do Direito, especialmente do Direito Processual. O mesmo ocorre com o Direito Eleitoral e o Direito Processual Eleitoral, que estão, essencialmente, imbricados, em uma fase metodológica que não discrepa do arcaico sincretismo do Direito Processual. Para que tão relevante ramo do Direito evolua, faz-se necessário o estudo da segurança jurídica, das fases metodológicas do processo e da Teoria Geral do Processo. Assim, é possível demonstrar o estágio em que se encontra e a imprescindibilidade de desenvolvimento de um Direito Processual Eleitoral. A partir de tais premissas, é que se faz imperiosa a efetiva construção de um Direito Processual Eleitoral, o que fica ainda mais perceptível com o estudo de inúmeros exemplos de insegurança legislativa e jurisprudencial. Nesse contexto, o Direito Processual Eleitoral demanda uma construção legislativa, com a sistematização e consolidação normativa, bem como necessita de uma construção doutrinária, a ser elaborada a partir da ferramenta constitucional dos direitos fundamentais e da ferramenta conceitual da Teoria Geral do Processo, a permitir a mitigação da insegurança jurídica existente. / The lack of legal certainty is one of the major concerns of Law, mainly of Procedural Law. The same happens with Electoral Law and Electoral Procedural Law, which are, essentially imbricated at a methodological phase that does not differ from the archaic syncretism of Procedural Law. In order to make such important area of Law develop, it becomes necessary to study the legal certainty, the methodological phases of the procedure and the General Theory of Procedure. This way, it is possible to identify the stage in which the indispensability of development of an Electoral Procedural Law is. On these grounds it is of foremost importance the effective construction of an Electoral Procedural Law. This becomes even more noticeable through the study of many examples of legislative and jurisprudential lack of security. In such context, the Electoral Procedural Law demands a legislative construction, with its normative systematization and consolidation, as well as the need of a doctrine construction, to be developed from a constitutional tool of fundamental rights and a conceptual tool of General Theory of Procedure, so as to allow the mitigation of the lack of legal certainty existent.

Si la jurisprudence n’a pas définitivement condamné l’ordre public de proximité, son champ d’application ne cesse de se restreindre, à tel point qu’il est devenu possible de s’interroger sur l’existence d’une condamnation implicite de ce mécanisme. Cette situation impose d’envisager son avenir dans la théorie générale du droit international privé. En dépit de la récurrence de sa critique en doctrine, l’ordre public de proximité n’est pas dépourvu d’utilité et il apparaît possible, par une réinterprétation de son fonctionnement d’ensemble, de dépasser la crainte qu’il opère une mutation du rôle dévolu à l’exception d’ordre public et favorise le développement du relativisme culturel. Cette possible réhabilitation de l’ordre public de proximité ne doit pas, cependant, conduire à penser que le mécanisme serait sans défaut. Sa confrontation aux évolutions du droit international privé et à la possible mutation de l’exception d’ordre public rend ainsi compte d’une certaine inadaptation. Surtout, le passage vers une logique hiérarchique, nécessaire afin de dépasser la critique relativiste, fait craindre un désintérêt total pour la norme étrangère. Dès lors, le mécanisme semble se construire en marge de la théorie de l’ordre public et il devient nécessaire d’envisager son dépassement. La reformulation de la théorie de l’effet atténué pourrait se présenter comme une solution efficace. Il conviendra, cependant, de veiller à ce que le raisonnement à l’œuvre soit fondé sur une mise en balance des différents intérêts en cause. Par conséquent, si l’ordre public de proximité ne peut plus exister comme mécanisme autonome, la condition de proximité doit demeurer et contribuer au développement de la proportionnalité comme technique de mise en œuvre de l’effet atténué. / Although case law has not entirely ruled out the theory of the “ordre public de proximité”, it’s scope has constantly been decreased to the point that it is now impossible to question it’s fall from grace. Hence pushing for a study of it’s future existence in the general theory of privateinternational law. In spite of recurrent criticism from Doctrine sources, the “ordre public de proximité” has not become useless. A renewed interpretation of its overall functioning is needed to overcome the fear of taking over the role of the public policy exception and therefore encouraging cultural relativism.However, considering the rehabilitation of the “ordre public de proximité” should not misguide us into thinking it is flawless. When confronted to the evolution of private interational law and a possible mutation of the public policy exception, the inadaptability of this principle becomesobvious. More specifically when transiting toward a logical ranking of values as necessairy for it’s effective functioning, one may fear a lack of consideration for the foreign norm. As a consequence, the “ordre public de proximité” seems to build itself outside of the public policytheory highlighting the need to consider it’s overcoming. Redefining the theory of the so-called “effet atténué” (limited effect) could represente an effective solution on condition that this system is founded on the balance of interest. In conclusion, if the “ordre public de proximité” cannot exist as an independent mechanism, the proximity condition must remain and support the development of proportionality as the reasoning method for the application of the so-called “effet atténué”.

Le concept de contrats d'affaires semble ignoré de la théorie générale du contrat. Une recherche juridique sur les contrats d'affaires traduit par conséquent une perception critique de cette théorie générale. A travers l'identification des contrats d'affaires par la construction d'une notion d'intérêt économique, puis leur réalisation grâce à une approche réaliste du droit des contrats, les recherches sur les contrats d'affaires visent à construire une méthode qui permet de saisir les réalités économiques dans le raisonnement juridique. Au moyen pris d'une analyse économique du contrat d'une part et d'une analyse économique du droit des contrats d'autre part, l'étude exprime ainsi une théorie réaliste du contrat qui vient discuter en opportunité des principes et de la méthode de la théorie générale du contrat, analysée comme une approche normativiste du droit des contrats. Cette théorie propose alors d'expliquer pourquoi et comment un juge choisirait de s'affranchir des prescriptions de la théorie générale du contrat pour trancher un litige qui le nécessiterait. / Business is not inclued as well in french general theory of contract. Legal research on business contracts seems therefore to be a critical view on that general theory. Throuhg the identification of a notion of business contract, then through its materialization thanks to a realist approach to Contracts Law, legal research on business contracts aim at a method which could get economic reality in legal reasoning. An economic analysis of contract on the one hand and an economic analysis of Contract Law on the other hand express a realist theory of contract, which discuss equity about principles and method of the french general theory of contract and the normative approach of Law. This realist theory introduce a method to explain why and how a judge would choose to throw off general theory's rules to decide on a case, when it would have seemed necessary.

Face au phénomène complexe de la vulnérabilité, le législateur a compris que la réponse ne pouvait pas être unique. Le nombre de mesures proposées en droit des majeurs protégés est ainsi suffisamment conséquent pour qu’une grande diversité de situations apparaisse. Que ce soit sur le plan de l’âge, de la situation familiale, sociale ou professionnelle ou au regard du handicap ou de l’état de santé (physique ou mental), la « population » des majeurs protégés présente une forte hétérogénéité. La loi offre à l’organe de protection, titulaire d’un pouvoir pour exercer sa mission, de multiples outils pour sauvegarder l’intérêt du majeur protégé. Variables, ces instruments laisseraient à penser qu’il n’est pas concevable de construire une théorie générale du pouvoir cohérente en droit des majeurs protégés. Toutefois, en ce domaine, au cœur de la notion de pouvoir, se trouve le critère de la prise en charge de l’intérêt exclusif du majeur protégé. C’est là en effet le critère auquel il est systématiquement fait référence. L’objectif de notre thèse était dès lors de parvenir à démontrer que s’il existe en droit des majeurs protégés des variables attachées au pouvoir, ces dernières ne sauraient masquer l’unité de son régime. La découverte de constantes, lesquelles sont consubstantielles au pouvoir en ce domaine, permet d’en extraire une théorie générale. À partir de cet instant, le pouvoir en droit des majeurs protégés prend une coloration nouvelle. En adaptant la définition proposée par la doctrine à la spécificité du droit des majeurs protégés, nous proposons de définir le pouvoir comme la prérogative juridique et/ou matérielle confiée à un organe de protection et le plus souvent sous le contrôle d’un juge, qui ne remédie pas forcément à une incapacité d’exercice mais qui est toujours répartie entre différents organes. Le pouvoir est finalisé par l’intérêt exclusif, mais non égoïste, d’une personne majeure vulnérable, du fait de l’altération de ses facultés personnelles. Tant le principe de responsabilité que celui de l’interdiction d’agir sous l’empire d’un conflit d’intérêts constituent des procédés efficients pour lutter contre le mauvais exercice du pouvoir. Une conception renouvelée du pouvoir a ainsi pu être proposée à partir de l’étude de ses variables et de ses constantes en droit des majeurs protégés. Ayant abouti à une théorie générale du pouvoir, l’étude ici menée peut donc servir de base à une analyse critique du droit positif et aboutir à son amélioration. / Confronted to the complex phenomenon that vulnerable adults represent, the legislative body has realized that the answer to this situation had to be multi-faceted. The number of measures taken in the field of the vulnerable adult's legal status is substantial enough to lead to a great variety of situations. Vulnerable adults represent a widely heterogeneous group whether we look at age, family, social and work situations, or physical or psychological conditions. The protective body that holds the power to carry out its mission has various legal tools at its disposal to protect the vulnerable adult's interests. These instruments are variable, and could first lead us to think that it would be impossible to build a consistent general theory of legal power in the field of the vulnerable adults’ protection. Here, however, at the heart of the notion of power, stands the idea of how to fully care to the vulnerable adult's sole interest. It is the one guideline that is systematically referred to. Thus, our goal was to show that even though there are many power-related variable features in the legal field of vulnerable adults protection and safeguarding, they cannot dissimulate the unity of the field. As we unveiled the permanent features, inherent to the power in this matter, it allowed us to draw a general theory. From then on, the concept of power in the vulnerable adults protection takes a different tone. By adjusting the classic definition of power to the specificity of the vulnerable adult protection and its legal field, we propose to define the power as the legal and/or material prerogative entrusted to a protective body and mostly under the control of a judge. This prerogative does not necessarily remedy the incapacity to act in law but is always divided between several actors. The purpose of the power is the sole but non-egotistic interest of the vulnerable adult because of his or her cognitive impairment. The principle of responsibility and the principle of a ban on acting under the influence of a conflict of interests are both efficient ways to prevent an improper use of power. The analysis of variables and permanent features in the vulnerable adult protection legal field thus allowed us to propose a refreshed idea of power. Since the study undertaken here has resulted in a general theory of legal power, it can then be used as a critical analysis of positive/substantive law and lead to its improvement.

The aim of the diploma thesis is to observe the conceptual change in primary school students within the understanding of the market mechanism. On the basis of model situations, a diagnosis of children's understanding will be carried out, on which the didactic procedure will be made leading to the change of erroneous and incomplete ideas about the functioning of the market. On the basis of verifying the didactic procedure, recommendations will be presented for teaching the subject on primary school. KEY WORDS Conceptual change approach, domain-general theory, domain-specific theory, constructivism, qualitative pedagogical research

De toutes les judiciarisations, le procès civil en contrefaçon est l’un de ceux qui durant ces dernières années a pris le plus d’ampleur, car au-delà de l’atteinte que le fléau de la contrefaçon porte aux monopoles d’exploitation, il rejaillit aussi sur tous les secteurs de notre économie, à savoir les emplois, la santé, la sécurité des consommateurs ou bien encore l’investissement. C’est par l’analyse du rôle que les acteurs ont à tenir dans le procès civil en contrefaçon, que l’on se propose d’étudier la singularité de ce procès au regard du droit commun procédural et d’envisager une possible théorie du procès civil en contrefaçon. Les recherches s’attachent alors à effectuer, tout d’abord, une analyse approfondie de la charge des parties dans le procès civil en contrefaçon ; l’enjeu est de mettre ici en évidence le pouvoir particulier d’impulsion des parties en identifiant les facteurs de divergence ou d’unité de la matière. Parallèlement à l’examen de ce pouvoir d’initiative, il s’agit aussi de mettre l’accent sur les mesures auxiliaires originales, telles que la saisie-contrefaçon ou la retenue en douane ouvertes aux parties afin de leur permettre de mieux prouver ou de mieux anticiper le procès au fond, sans forcément rompre l’équilibre procédural des droits entre les parties. Le sujet nous emmène, ensuite, à mettre à jour l’office du juge dans le procès civil en contrefaçon. Assurément, après que la préparation et l’initiative de l’instance en contrefaçon aient été laissées à la diligence des parties, c’est en effet au juge étatique qu’il appartient de « prendre la main » sur le procès et il convient alors d’étudier sa compétence dérogatoire en matière de contrefaçon, compétence qui se révèle tantôt concentrée, tantôt éclatée en cas de conflit de juridictions, tantôt concurrencée aussi par un juge « privé ». La réflexion conduit in fine à rechercher si le pouvoir qu’a le juge de trancher le litige, en allouant des dommages et intérêts ou en réintégrant la victime dans l’intégralité de son droit de propriété, témoigne ou non de la nature hybride des droits de propriété intellectuelle dépassant la simple sphère privative pour rejoindre une autre dimension plus largement collective. Telles sont les pistes de réflexion menant à l’édification d’un régime commun procédural. / In all trials, the civil lawsuit for counterfeiting is one of those which is on the increase because, beyond violate a monopoly, the counterfeiting also spills over into all sectors of our economy, ie employment, health, consumer safety or even investment. It’s by analyzing the role that players have in the civil lawsuit for imitation, we will study the specific feature of this case compared with the procedural law and we will consider a possible theory of civil trial for counterfeiting. The research lead to make, first of all, a thorough analysis of the burden of the parties in the civil lawsuit for imitation. The challenge is to highlight the particular impetus of the parties by identifying divergence factors or convergence about the subject. We have also to stress that the original auxiliary measures allow the parties to better prove or to anticipate the trial without break necessarily the procedural balance. Afterwards, we have to study the role of the judge in the civil lawsuit for counterfeiting. Indeed, after the parties have prepared and taken legal action, the judge has to "take over" the trial and it’s then necessary to examine its derogatory competence, which is sometimes concentrated, sometimes exploded in a conflict of jurisdictions, sometimes challenged by a "private" judge. Finally the subject leads to determine if the judge’s power, allocating damages for example, show the dual prism of intellectual property law wich overstep the private monopoly to belong to a wider collective dimension. These are the lines of thought leading to the building of a common procedural regime.