Streptococcus pneumoniae est la cause principale de pneumonies, otites, méningites et septicémies. La transformation génétique naturelle constitue l’élément clé de son adaptation aux changements environnementaux. Elle s’effectue par intégration d’ADN d’origine externe dans le chromosome de la bactérie, et a lieu pendant un état physiologique particulier appelé compétence.Mon travail de thèse a consisté à étudier les acteurs principaux de la régulation de la compétence (ComD, ComE) et les protéines impliquées dans la prise en charge, le traitement de l’ADN transformant et la recombinaison (DprA, RecA). J’ai notamment résolu la structure du facteur de transcription ComE par cristallographie aux rayons X, et réalisé une étude fonctionnelle de sa fixation sur un de ses promoteurs. Les résultats obtenus ont permis de proposer un mécanisme selon lequel la dimérisation induite par la phosphorylation de ComE, couplée à sa fixation sur la séquence promotrice d’ADN, provoquerait une courbure de l’ADN. Cette courbure permettrait la fixation de l’ARN polymérase, activant ainsi la transcription des gènes nécessaires à la mise en place de la compétence. / Streptococcus pneumoniae is the leading cause of community-acquired infections worldwide. The natural genetic transformation is the key to its adaptation to environmental changes. It takes place with the integration in its chromosome of exogenous DNA, during a physiological state called competence.During my thesis I have focused on the main actors of competence regulation (ComD, ComE) and on proteins involved in exogenous DNA processing and recombination (DprA, RecA). In particular, I have solved the structure of the transcriptional activator ComE by X-ray crystallography, and carried out a functional study of its binding to its promoter. The results obtained allowed us to propose a mechanism regarding the transcriptional activation by ComE of the genes necessary for the set up of the competence : the phosphorylation-induced dimerization, coupled to the binding of ComE to its DNA promoter, would curve the DNA and allow the binding of the RNA polymerase.

A transformação genética pode contribuir substancialmente para o melhoramento genético do feijão, permitindo a introdução de genes que contribuam para o aumento da produtividade e estabilidade da produção. A metodologia de transformação genética de feijão (Phaseolus vulgaris), ora disponível (biobalística em embriões) apresenta baixa eficiência, o que dificulta o seu uso em pesquisas envolvendo a transferência de genes e não permite seu uso de forma ampla em programas de melhoramento genético da cultura. Um método efetivo e reprodutível de regeneração de plantas, a partir de células ou tecidos, é essencial em estudos de genética e melhoramento envolvendo a transferência de genes pela engenharia genética. Os métodos de transformação somente terão sucesso se tivermos previamente estabelecido um protocolo eficiente de regeneração de plantas a partir de tecidos potencialmente transformáveis. O objetivo principal deste trabalho é o desenvolvimento de um protocolo de transformação genética de feijão via Agrobacterium. O primeiro passo no desenvolvimento deste protocolo foi o estabelecimento de um sistema eficiente de regeneração de plantas a partir de calos. O passo seguinte foi o estabelecimento de metodologia da transformação de calos via Agrobacterium. / The genetic transformation can contribute substantially with the bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.) breeding, allowing the introduction of genes to improve productivity and its stability. The transformation methodology of bean, now available (biolistic in embryos), is not efficient, which prevents its use in bean breeding programs. A reproducible and effective method of plant regeneration, from cells or tissues is essential in genetics studies and plant breeding, involving the genetic engineering. The transformation methods will only work if we can previously establish an efficient plant regeneration protocol from tissues with potential for transformation. The aim of this work was to develop an efficient transformation protocol of bean via Agrobacterium. The first step was to establish an efficient system of plant regeneration from callus, followed by the establishment of a transformation methodology via Agrobacterium.

by Ng Wing Man. / Thesis (M.Phil.)--Chinese University of Hong Kong, 2005. / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 156-174). / Abstracts in English and Chinese. / Acknowledgements --- p.iii / Abstract --- p.v / 摘要 --- p.vii / Table of Contents --- p.ix / List of Figures --- p.xiii / List of Tables --- p.xvi / List of Graphs --- p.xvii / List of Abbreviations --- p.xviii / Chapter Chapter 1 --- General Introduction --- p.1 / Chapter Chapter 2 --- Literature Review --- p.3 / Chapter 2.1 --- Human granulocyte colony-stimulating factor (hG-CSF) --- p.3 / Chapter 2.1.1 --- Historical background --- p.3 / Chapter 2.1.2 --- Physiological Roles --- p.5 / Chapter 2.1.3 --- Molecular properties --- p.8 / Chapter 2.1.4 --- Biochemical properties --- p.9 / Chapter 2.1.5 --- Comparison to G-CSF of other species --- p.11 / Chapter 2.1.6 --- Biological Activities --- p.12 / Chapter 2.1.7 --- Clinical Applications --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1.7.1 --- Clinical use in myelosuppressive chemotherapy and neutropenic fever --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1.7.2 --- Clinical use in bone marrow transplantation (BMT) and peripheral blood progenitor cell (PBPC) transplantation --- p.14 / Chapter 2.1.7.3 --- Clinical use in HIV infection --- p.16 / Chapter 2.1.7.4 --- Clinical use in diabetes mellitus --- p.17 / Chapter 2.1.7.5 --- Clinical use in severe chronic neutropenia --- p.18 / Chapter 2.1.7.6 --- Future prospects --- p.18 / Chapter 2.1.7.7 --- Dosages and adverse effects --- p.19 / Chapter 2.1.8 --- Economic value --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2 --- Plant as bioractor --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2.1 --- Medical molecular farming --- p.20 / Chapter 2.2.2 --- Commercial biopharmaceutical proteins --- p.25 / Chapter 2.2.3 --- Transgenic plants producing hematopoietic growth factors --- p.25 / Chapter 2.2.3.1 --- Granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor (GM-CSF) --- p.26 / Chapter 2.2.3.2 --- Interleukin-2 (IL-2) --- p.28 / Chapter 2.3 --- Rice as expression system --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3.1 --- Characteristics --- p.29 / Chapter 2.3.2 --- Advantages of using rice as bioreactor --- p.30 / Chapter 2.3.3 --- Previous studies --- p.31 / Chapter 2.3.4 --- Transformation method --- p.33 / Chapter 2.3.5 --- Super-binary vector --- p.34 / Chapter 2.4 --- Strategies for enhancing protein expression level --- p.36 / Chapter 2.4.1 --- Vacuolar targeting --- p.36 / Chapter 2.4.1.1 --- Protein targeting signals --- p.38 / Chapter 2.4.1.2 --- Binding protein of 80kDa (BP-80) --- p.39 / Chapter 2.4.1.3 --- a-Tonoplast intrinsic protein (α-TIP) --- p.39 / Chapter 2.4.1.4 --- Receptor homology region-transmembrane domain-Ring H2 motif (RMR) --- p.40 / Chapter 2.4.2 --- Fusion with glutelin in rice --- p.41 / Chapter 2.5 --- Hypotheses and aims of this study --- p.43 / Chapter Chapter 3 --- Materials and Methods --- p.45 / Chapter 3.1 --- Introduction --- p.45 / Chapter 3.2 --- Chemicals --- p.45 / Chapter 3.3 --- Bacterial strains --- p.46 / Chapter 3.4 --- Chimeric genes construction --- p.46 / Chapter 3.4.1 --- Protein targeting constructs --- p.51 / Chapter 3.4.2 --- Enterokinase site constructs --- p.60 / Chapter 3.4.3 --- Glutein signal peptide constructs --- p.65 / Chapter 3.4.4 --- Glutelin fusion constructs --- p.70 / Chapter 3.4.5 --- Sequence fidelity of chimeric genes --- p.77 / Chapter 3.4.6 --- Cloning of chimeric genes into rice super-binary vector --- p.77 / Chapter 3.5 --- Rice transformation --- p.79 / Chapter 3.5.1 --- Plant materials --- p.79 / Chapter 3.5.2 --- Agrobacterium transformation --- p.79 / Chapter 3.5.3 --- A grobacterium-mediated transformation of rice --- p.79 / Chapter 3.6 --- Transgenic expression --- p.81 / Chapter 3.6.1 --- Extraction of leaf genomic DNA --- p.81 / Chapter 3.6.2 --- Synthesis of DIG-labeled double-stranded DNA probe --- p.82 / Chapter 3.6.3 --- Southern blot analysis --- p.83 / Chapter 3.6.4 --- Extraction of total RNA from immature rice seeds --- p.84 / Chapter 3.6.5 --- Northern blot analysis --- p.85 / Chapter 3.6.6 --- Protein extraction --- p.86 / Chapter 3.6.7 --- Tricine SDS-PAGE --- p.86 / Chapter 3.6.8 --- Western blot analysis --- p.87 / Chapter 3.6.9 --- Enterokinase digestion of EK fusion proteins --- p.88 / Chapter 3.7 --- Confocal immunoflorescence studies of rhG-CSF in rice grain --- p.89 / Chapter 3.7.1 --- Preparation of sample sections --- p.89 / Chapter 3.7.2 --- Double-labeling of fluorescence probes --- p.89 / Chapter 3.7.3 --- Image collection --- p.90 / Chapter 3.8 --- Functional analysis of rhG-CSF --- p.91 / Chapter 3.8.1 --- Culture of NFS-60 cells --- p.91 / Chapter 3.8.2 --- MTT cell proliferation assay --- p.92 / Chapter 3.9 --- Bacterial expression of anti-hG-CSF --- p.93 / Chapter 3.9.1 --- pET expression in E. coli --- p.93 / Chapter 3.9.2 --- Purification of His-hG-CSF --- p.97 / Chapter 3.9.3 --- Immunization of rabbits --- p.97 / Chapter Chapter 4 --- Results --- p.99 / Chapter 4.1 --- Construction of chimeric genes for rice transformation --- p.99 / Chapter 4.2 --- "Rice transformation, selection and regeneration" --- p.103 / Chapter 4.3 --- Southern blot analysis --- p.105 / Chapter 4.4 --- Northern blot analysis --- p.109 / Chapter 4.5 --- Western blot analysis --- p.114 / Chapter 4.6 --- Enterokinase digestion of EK fusion proteins --- p.125 / Chapter 4.7 --- Confocal immunofluorescence studies of rhG-CSF in transgenic rice grain --- p.128 / Chapter 4.8 --- Functional analysis of rhG-CSF --- p.132 / Chapter 4.9 --- Bacterial expression of anti-hG-CSF --- p.135 / Chapter 4.9.1 --- Expression and purification of recombinant His-hG-CSF in E. coli --- p.135 / Chapter 4.9.2 --- Titer and specificity of the anti-serum --- p.137 / Chapter Chapter 5 --- Discussion --- p.139 / Chapter 5.1 --- Introduction --- p.139 / Chapter 5.2 --- Fusion of hG-CSF with protein sorting determinants --- p.141 / Chapter 5.3 --- Fusion of hG-CSF with rice glutelin --- p.145 / Chapter 5.4 --- Glutelin signal peptide --- p.146 / Chapter 5.5 --- O-glycosylation --- p.148 / Chapter 5.6 --- Enterokinase digestion --- p.148 / Chapter 5.7 --- Expression level of rhG-CSF --- p.149 / Chapter 5.8 --- Functional analysis of rhG-CSF --- p.151 / Chapter 5.9 --- Future perspectives --- p.151 / Chapter Chapter 6 --- Conclusion --- p.155 / References --- p.156

O melhoramento genético das plantas cítricas, pelos métodos tradicionais, é dificultado por uma série de características da biologia de reprodução da espécie. Assim a utilização de técnicas modernas de biotecnologia, como a cultura de tecidos, a manipulação genética e a biologia molecular, têm se mostrado atrativas para o melhoramento genético da cultura. O objetivo deste trabalho é avaliar a transformação genética em variedades de laranja doce (Citrus sinensis) usando o gene xylA como gene de seleção. O trabalho foi realizado com a estirpe EHA 101 de Agrobacterium tumefaciens, contendo o plasmídeo pNOV1457, com o gene xylA. Os isolados da bactéria foram mantidos em meio de cultura YEP suplementado com os antibióticos (ácido nalidíxico, canamicina e estreptomicina). Segmentos de epicótilo foram incubados, por um período de 20 minutos, com a suspensão bacteriana. Após a inoculação, os segmentos foram secos em papel toalha estéril, e incubados em placa de petri (100 x 15 mm) contendo o meio de cultura EME + BAP (1 mg.L-1), em ausência de luz, à temperatura de 24 C, por um período de 3 dias, com acetoseringona e sem acetoseringona durante o cocultivo. Após o co-cultivo, os explantes foram transferidos para meio de cultura de seleção e regeneração, constituído do meio de cultura EME + BAP (1 mg.L-1) + cefotaxime (500 mg.L-1) + xilose (15 mg.L-1). A transformação genética foi confirmada pela detecção do gene xylA nas plantas regeneradas por PCR. A extração do DNA foi feita pelo método de Dellaporta et al. (1983) e as reações de PCR foram conduzidas em termociclador PTC-100 (MJ Research) utilizandose "primers" específicos para detecção do gene xylA. Analisando os dados obtidos verificou-se que foram obtidas plantas transgênicas, utilizando-se o sistema xylA/xilose, de 3 variedades de laranja doce Hamlin, Valência e Natal, com uma eficiência de transformação genética variando de 1 - 3%, em função do experimento e da variedade. A atividade da enzima xilose isomerase foi confirmada pelo teste clorofenol vermelho. Esse trabalho concluiu que é possível a regeneração de plantas transgênicas de variedades de laranja doce utilizando-se o sistema de seleção positiva xylA/xilose. / The genetic improvement of the citric plants, by traditional methods, is made difficult by a series species biology reproduction characteristics. The use of modern biotechnology techniques, as tissue culture, the genetic manipulation and molecular biology, have shown attractive for the culture genetic improvement. The objective of this work was to evaluate the genetic transformation in varieties of sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) using the gene xylA as selection gene. The work was carried out with the EHA 101 Agrobacterium tumefaciens, containing the plasmid pNOV1457, whith the gene xylA. The bacterium was culture in YEP media supplemented with antibiotics (nalidixic acid, kanamicyn e streptomycin). Epicotyl segments were incubated, for 20 min, with the bacterial suspension. After inoculation, the segments were dry in a sterile paper, and incubated in a petri dish (100 x 15mm) containing the medium EME + BAP (1 mg.L-1), in dark, at the temperature of 24 °C, for a period of 3 days, with and without acetoseryngone during the co-culture period. After the co-culture, the explants were transferred to culture medium of selection and regeneration, consisting of medium EME + BAP (1 mg.L-1) + cefotaxime (500 mg.L-1) + xylose (15 mg.L-1). The genetic transformation was confirmed by the gene detection by PCR. The DNA extraction was done by Dellaporta et al. (1983). PCR reactions were done in a thermal cycler PTC-100 (MJ Research) using specific "primers" for gene xylA detection. The enzyme xilose isomerase activity was confirmed by the red clorofenol test. It is possible to regenerate sweet orange transgenic plants using the positive select system based on xylA gene, of 3 sweer orange varieties Hamlin, Valencia and Natal, with a genetic transformation efficiency of 1-3%.

A utilização de técnicas biotecnológicas como a transformação genética, tem auxiliado os programas de melhoramento de plantas perenes. Essa técnica já é utilizada em citros com sucesso, principalmente para obtenção de plantas tolerantes a doenças. O presente trabalho teve três objetivos: 1.transformação genética do porta-enxerto limão ‘Cravo’ com o gene bacteriopsina (bO), relacionado com ativação de mecanismos de defesa da planta como morte programada de células e produção de ácido salicílico, com o intuito de aumentar a resistência a gomose de Phytophthora; 2. transformação genética das principais variedades copas de laranja doce (‘Hamlin’, ‘Valência’, ‘Natal’ e ‘Pêra’) com o gene da cecropina. Esse gene possui atividade antibacteriana, tornando-se possível fonte de resistência a cancro cítrico e clorose variegada dos citros e; 3. avaliar a viabilidade da utilização de um promotor específico de xilema em citros. As transformações foram efetuadas pelo sistema indireto via Agrobacterium tumefaciens, utilizando segmentos juvenis de epicótilo. Testes moleculares foram realizados e confirmaram a inserção dos genes descritos acima. No caso do limão ‘Cravo’ duas plantas foram regeneradas. Na transformação das variedades copa com o gene da cecropina, diferentes taxas de eficiência foram observadas, sendo que melhores resultados foram obtidos para laranja ‘Valência (3,3-4,5 %) e laranja ‘Hamlin’ (2,5-3,0 %) em comparação com laranja ‘Natal’ (1,6-2,0 %) e laranja ‘Pêra’ (0,5 %). Plantas de laranja ‘Valência’ também foram transformadas com o promotor da fenilalamina amônia-liase. Além das transformações, dois bioensaios foram instalados: um com as plantas de limão ‘Cravo’, visando avaliar resistência a gomose de Phytophthora e outro, com laranja ‘Valência’ transformada com o gene da cecropina. No primeiro caso, propagaram-se por enxertia plantas transgênicas de limão ‘Cravo’ e, após seis meses fez-se a inoculação com Phytophtora nicotianae, que consistiu na introdução de agulha contaminada com propágulos do patógeno, numa altura de 10 cm acima da região da enxertia. Vinte e cinco dias após aferiu-se o comprimento e área das lesões, bem como observou-se a presença de goma. Comparando-se o desempenho das duas linhagens transgênicas com o limão ‘Cravo’ não transformado, uma delas apresentou menor área a lesão. Já para as plantas com o gene cecropina um ensaio com folha destacada foi realizado, em que as mesmas foram perfuradas com auxílio de uma agulha e, posteriormente, pulverizadas com uma suspensão da bactéria Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri e, mantidas em tubo de centrífuga (50 mL), onde os pecíolos permaneciam em contato com água estérial (2 mL). Avaliou-se o período necessário para o aparecimento das primeiras lesões e o tamanho das lesões após quinze dias. Uma planta transgênica apresentou maior resistência perante a testemunha. Nas plantas transformadas com o promotor da fenilalamina amônia-liase, testes para observar a expressão do gene GUS foram realizados e comprovaram a capacidade desse promotor em direcionar os genes para a região dos vasos condutores. Os resultados obtidos nesse trabalho são pioneiros em citros, utilizando os genes bO, cecropina e o promotor PAL. / Application of modern biotechnology techniques, as genetic transformation, has helped breeding programs of perennial plant species. This technique is already successfully used in citrus in several countries, mostly to the production of more disease-tolerant plants. Present work had three objectives as it follows: 1. genetic transformation of Rangpur lime rootstock with the bacterio-opsin(bO) gene, related to the activation of plant defense mechanisms such as programmed cell death and salicylic acid production, towards the increase of the tolerance to Phytophthora gummosis; 2. genetic transformation of main sweet orange scion varieties (Hamlin, Valência, Natal and Pêra) with cecropin gene. This gene products present antibacterial activity, becoming a possible source for citrus canker and variegated chlorosis tolerance and. 3. to test the viability of the use of a xylem-specific promoter (phenylalanine ammonia lyase) in citrus. Transformations were performed by direct system via Agrobacterium tumefaciens, using juvenile citrus epicotyl segments, which showed to be feasible in citrus, once transgenic plants were obtained for all proposed genes. Molecular tests were conduced and confirmed the insertion of the genes described above. In the case of Rangpur lime two plants were regenerated; in the transformation of canopy varieties with cecropin gene, different efficiency rates were observed, and the best results were obtained for Valencia sweet orange (3.3-4.5 %) and Hamlin sweet orange (2.5-3.0 %), compared to Natal sweet orange (1.6-2.0 %) and Pêra sweet orange (0.5 %). Plants of Valência variety were also transformed with the phenylalanine ammonia lyase promoter, resulting in 15 diverse transformation events. Beyond transformations, two bioessays were installed: one with Rangpur lime plants, aiming to evaluate tolerance to gummosis caused by Phytophthora, and another with Valência sweet orange transformed with cecropin gene. In the first case Rangpur lime transgenic plants were propagated through grafting and, after six months, were inoculated with Phytophtora, by introducing a contaminated needle containing the pathogen propagules, at 10 cm above the grafting region; 25 days later the experiment evaluation was conduced, consisting on measuring the lenght and area of lesions, as well as on the observation of gum. Comparing the performance of Rangpur lime transgenic lines with that of a non-transformed Rangpur lime, one plant presented higher tolerance to gummosis. Although, for the cecropin-gene plants, it was conduced an essay with destached leaves, where these were punched by a needle and then sprayed with a bacterial suspension of Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri; they were kept in centrifuge tubes (50 mL), where petioles mantained contact with sterile water (2 mL). After 15 days, the necessary period to the first lesions appearance and their size were evaluated. One transgenic plant showed a higher tolerance in comparison to control. In plants transformed with phenylalanine ammonia lyase promoter, tests to observe gus gene expression were performed and comproved its ability to promote and direct gene activity to conductive vessels. This work results are the first in citrus using bO and cecropin genes, and PAL promoter.

O Huanglongbing (HLB) é uma das doenças mais ameaçadoras para citricultura mundial e, até o momento, não foi encontrada resistência na base genética do gênero Citrus. A doença é causada pela bactéria Candidatus Liberibacter spp., endêmica de floema. Portanto, na busca por uma planta transgênica resistente ao HLB é desejável avaliar construções gênicas em que o gene de interesse se expresse preferencialmente na região em que a bactéria coloniza a planta, ou seja, no floema. Assim, o objetivo deste trabalho foi a obtenção de plantas transgênicas via Agrobacterium tumefaciens, de citrange Carrizo [Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. x Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck] e de laranja doce [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck] cultivares Hamlin, Valência e Pêra, contendo o gene uidA (GUS) sob o controle dos promotores Citrus pholem protein 2 (CsPhP2), Arabidopsis thaliana pholem protein 2 (AtPhP2) e Arabidopsis thaliana sucrose transporter 2 (AtSuT2), para verificar se esses promotores regulam a expressão do gene repórter na região do floema. Foram utilizados segmentos de epicótilo de plântulas germinadas in vitro e como agente de seleção de regeneração de plantas transgênicas foi utilizado o gene nptII, que confere resistência ao antibiótico canamicina. Dos brotos regenerados foi coletada uma amostra de material para a realização do ensaio histoquímico com X-GLUC. Os brotos que formaram coloração azulada confirmaram a integração do transgene, sendo esses enxertados em porta enxertos previamente germinados e estiolados in vitro. A partir do número de explantes introduzidos, número explantes responsivos, número de brotos regenerados e número de brotos regenerados GUS positivos calculou-se a eficiência de transformação genética dos experimentos. Para a confirmação da transformação genética de laranja Hamlin foram realizadas análises de PCR e Southern blot de três plantas GUS positivas aclimatizadas. Também foram feitos cortes histológicos manuais para melhor visualização da reação histoquímica de GUS das plantas de laranja Hamlin Southern blot positivas. Todos os experimentos de transformação regeneraram pelo menos um broto GUS positivo. As plantas de laranja Hamlin analisadas por PCR e Southern blot analisadas foram confirmadas como transformadas com uma inserção do transgene. Plantas nas quais foram realizados cortes histológicos indicaram expressão diferencial das construções gênicas no floema. / Huanglongbing (HLB) is one of the most threatening diseases to worldwide citriculture and till the present moment, no resistance has been found in citrus genetic basis. This disease has Candidatus Liberibacter spp. as the pathogenic agent, an endemic phloem bacterium. Therefore, in the search for a transgenic plant resistant to HLB, it is desirable to evaluate constructions in which the gene of interest is expressed, preferentially, in tissues where the bacteria grow, i.e., in the phloem. Therefore, this work aimed to obtain transgenic plants of Carrizo citrange [Poncirus trifoliata (L.) Raf. x Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck], and of Hamlin, Valencia, and Pera sweet oranges [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck], via Agrobacterium tumefaciens, containing uidA (GUS) gene, controlled by the promoters Citrus pholem protein 2 (CsPhP2), Arabidopsis thaliana pholem protein 2 (AtPhP2) and Arabidopsis thaliana sucrose transporter 2 (AtSuT2), in order to check if these promoters drive the reporter gene expression in the phloem. For the transformation, in vitro germinated seedlings epicotil segments were used. The gene nptII, which confers resistance to the antibiotic kanamycin, was used as the selective system. From the regenerated shoots, a tissue sample was collected to perform the X-GLUC histochemical analysis. The regenerated shoots colored in blue were considered transgenic, and these were grafted on in vitro grown rootstocks. The transformation efficiency of each experiment was calculated based on the number of introduced explants, responsive explants, number of regenerated shoots, and number of GUS positive regenerated shoots. In order to confirm the genetic transformation of Hamlin sweet orange, PCR and Southern blot analyses of three positive GUS acclimatized plants were performed. Anatomic slices for better visualization of blue color formed by GUS reaction were also made. All transformation experiments regenerated at least one GUS positive shoot. Plants of Hamlin sweet orange analyzed by PCR and Southern blot are transformed and have one transgene insertion. Anatomical analyses indicated preferential expression of the transgenes in the phloem.

A citricultura brasileira vem sendo constantemente ameaçada por doenças que causam sérios prejuízos à produção e a qualidade dos frutos, a exemplo da clorose variegada dos citros e do cancro cítrico. A transformação genética de plantas tem sido considerada uma importante ferramenta para os programas de melhoramento de citros, principalmente com relação à resistência a doenças. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a resistência a Xylella fastidiosa e Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri em plantas de Citrus sinensis transformadas com os genes atacina A (attA) ou Xa21. Plantas transgênicas de laranja doce, cvs. \'Hamlin\', \'Natal\', \'Pêra\' e \'Valência\', contendo o gene attA ou Xa21 foram propagadas por enxertia em limão \'Cravo\' para avaliação de resistência aos patógenos. A resistência a X. fastidiosa foi avaliada com a inoculação mecânica com alfinete da suspensão de bactéria nas plantas transgênicas contento o gene attA. As plantas foram avaliadas em quatro experimentos distintos, sendo oito plantas de laranja \'Hamlin\' (H), sete de laranja \'Natal\' (N), cinco de laranja \'Pêra\' (P) e nove de laranja \'Valência\' (V). O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado com 10 repetições e cada experimento foi repetido duas vezes. Aos quatro e oito meses da inoculação foram determinadas as populações bacterianas de todas as plantas por isolamento em meio de cultura e sete plantas (Hat8, Nat1, Nat2, Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) foram selecionadas pelo isolamento para serem analisadas por PCR quantitativo (qPCR), visando quantificar a população bacteriana em relação às plantas testemunhas. A resistência a X. axonopodis pv. citri foi avaliada nas plantas transgênicas contendo os genes attA ou Xa21. As mudas, apresentando folhas novas e sem ferimentos, foram inoculadas por aspersão, para penetração via estômatos, com suspensão bacteriana e encubadas em câmara de crescimento. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado com 7 a 10 repetições e cada experimento foi repetido três vezes. A severidade da doença foi determinada 30 dias após inoculação, avaliando-se duas folhas por planta com lesões de cancro cítrico, utilizando um software de quantificação de doença (QUANT v.1.0). Dentre as plantas transgênicas contendo o gene attA, quatro (Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) apresentaram menores populações bacterianas de X. fastidiosa e 16 apresentaram redução na severidade de cancro cítrico em relação à testemunha. Entre as plantas transgênicas contendo o gene Xa21, 11 apresentaram redução na severidade de cancro cítrico em comparação a testemunha. / The Brazilian citrus industry is constantly threatened by diseases that cause severe damage to production and fruit quality such as the citrus variegated chlorosis and citrus canker. Genetic transformation has been considered an important tool in citrus breeding programs especially regarding disease resistance. This research objective was to evaluate the resistance to Xylella fastidiosa and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri in Citrus sinensis plants, transformed with the genes attacin A (attA) or Xa21. Transgenic sweet orange plants from cultivars \'Hamlin\', \'Valencia\', \'Natal\' and \'Pera\' containing the attA or Xa21 genes were graft propagated on Rangpur lime for pathogen resistance evaluation. The resistance to X. fastidiosa was evaluated by mechanic inoculation of the transgenic plants containing the attA gene, using bacterial suspension and pin perforation of plant tissue. The plants were evaluated in four different experiments including, eight \'Hamlin\' sweet orange plants (H), seven \'Natal\' sweet orange plants (N), five \'Pera\' sweet orange plants (P) and nine \'Valencia\' sweet orange plants (V). The experimental design was fully randomized with ten replications and each experiment was repeated twice. After four and eight months from inoculation, the bacterial population of all plants was determined by isolation in culture medium and seven plants (Hat8, Nat1, Nat2, Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) were selected to be analyzed by quantitative PCR (qPCR) aiming to estimate the bacterial population in relation to control plants. The resistance to X. axonopodis pv. citri was evaluated in transgenic plants containing the attA or Xa21 genes. Seedlings showing new leaves and free from wounds, were spray-inoculated with bacterial suspension for stomatal penetration, and incubated in growth chamber. The experimental design was fully randomized with seven to ten repetitions and each experiment was repeated three times. The symptom severity of citrus canker was determined 30 days after inoculation, by evaluating two leaves per plant with citrus canker lesions, using a disease quantification software (Quant v.1.0). Within the transgenic plants containing the attA gene, four (Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) showed smaller bacterial populations of X. fastidiosa and 16 had reduction in the severity of citrus canker in relation to control plants. Within the transgenic plants containing the Xa21 gene, 11 presented reduction in symptom severity of citrus canker related to control plants.

A citricultura brasileira vem sendo constantemente ameaçada por doenças que causam sérios prejuízos à produção e a qualidade dos frutos, a exemplo da clorose variegada dos citros e do cancro cítrico. A transformação genética de plantas tem sido considerada uma importante ferramenta para os programas de melhoramento de citros, principalmente com relação à resistência a doenças. Este trabalho teve como objetivo avaliar a resistência a Xylella fastidiosa e Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri em plantas de Citrus sinensis transformadas com os genes atacina A (attA) ou Xa21. Plantas transgênicas de laranja doce, cvs. \'Hamlin\', \'Natal\', \'Pêra\' e \'Valência\', contendo o gene attA ou Xa21 foram propagadas por enxertia em limão \'Cravo\' para avaliação de resistência aos patógenos. A resistência a X. fastidiosa foi avaliada com a inoculação mecânica com alfinete da suspensão de bactéria nas plantas transgênicas contento o gene attA. As plantas foram avaliadas em quatro experimentos distintos, sendo oito plantas de laranja \'Hamlin\' (H), sete de laranja \'Natal\' (N), cinco de laranja \'Pêra\' (P) e nove de laranja \'Valência\' (V). O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado com 10 repetições e cada experimento foi repetido duas vezes. Aos quatro e oito meses da inoculação foram determinadas as populações bacterianas de todas as plantas por isolamento em meio de cultura e sete plantas (Hat8, Nat1, Nat2, Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) foram selecionadas pelo isolamento para serem analisadas por PCR quantitativo (qPCR), visando quantificar a população bacteriana em relação às plantas testemunhas. A resistência a X. axonopodis pv. citri foi avaliada nas plantas transgênicas contendo os genes attA ou Xa21. As mudas, apresentando folhas novas e sem ferimentos, foram inoculadas por aspersão, para penetração via estômatos, com suspensão bacteriana e encubadas em câmara de crescimento. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado com 7 a 10 repetições e cada experimento foi repetido três vezes. A severidade da doença foi determinada 30 dias após inoculação, avaliando-se duas folhas por planta com lesões de cancro cítrico, utilizando um software de quantificação de doença (QUANT v.1.0). Dentre as plantas transgênicas contendo o gene attA, quatro (Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) apresentaram menores populações bacterianas de X. fastidiosa e 16 apresentaram redução na severidade de cancro cítrico em relação à testemunha. Entre as plantas transgênicas contendo o gene Xa21, 11 apresentaram redução na severidade de cancro cítrico em comparação a testemunha. / The Brazilian citrus industry is constantly threatened by diseases that cause severe damage to production and fruit quality such as the citrus variegated chlorosis and citrus canker. Genetic transformation has been considered an important tool in citrus breeding programs especially regarding disease resistance. This research objective was to evaluate the resistance to Xylella fastidiosa and Xanthomonas axonopodis pv. citri in Citrus sinensis plants, transformed with the genes attacin A (attA) or Xa21. Transgenic sweet orange plants from cultivars \'Hamlin\', \'Valencia\', \'Natal\' and \'Pera\' containing the attA or Xa21 genes were graft propagated on Rangpur lime for pathogen resistance evaluation. The resistance to X. fastidiosa was evaluated by mechanic inoculation of the transgenic plants containing the attA gene, using bacterial suspension and pin perforation of plant tissue. The plants were evaluated in four different experiments including, eight \'Hamlin\' sweet orange plants (H), seven \'Natal\' sweet orange plants (N), five \'Pera\' sweet orange plants (P) and nine \'Valencia\' sweet orange plants (V). The experimental design was fully randomized with ten replications and each experiment was repeated twice. After four and eight months from inoculation, the bacterial population of all plants was determined by isolation in culture medium and seven plants (Hat8, Nat1, Nat2, Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) were selected to be analyzed by quantitative PCR (qPCR) aiming to estimate the bacterial population in relation to control plants. The resistance to X. axonopodis pv. citri was evaluated in transgenic plants containing the attA or Xa21 genes. Seedlings showing new leaves and free from wounds, were spray-inoculated with bacterial suspension for stomatal penetration, and incubated in growth chamber. The experimental design was fully randomized with seven to ten repetitions and each experiment was repeated three times. The symptom severity of citrus canker was determined 30 days after inoculation, by evaluating two leaves per plant with citrus canker lesions, using a disease quantification software (Quant v.1.0). Within the transgenic plants containing the attA gene, four (Pat6, Pat7, Vat2 e Vat12) showed smaller bacterial populations of X. fastidiosa and 16 had reduction in the severity of citrus canker in relation to control plants. Within the transgenic plants containing the Xa21 gene, 11 presented reduction in symptom severity of citrus canker related to control plants.

A cana-de-açúcar é uma das principais culturas agrícolas no cenário econômico e social brasileiro. Na cultura de cana-de-açúcar o estresse hídrico é o principal fator limitante para o aumento de produtividade, sendo responsável por alterações fisiológicas, bioquímicas e moleculares nas plantas, que podem deflagrar perturbações metabólicas que ativam a morte celular programada (MCP). Sabendo-se que o gene BI-1 apresenta o potencial de reduzir os efeitos da MCP desencadeado por estresses bióticos e abióticos em plantas, este trabalho teve como objetivo analisar plantas transgênicas de cana-de-açúcar que expressam o gene BI-1 de Arabidopsis thaliana (AtBI-1) em condições de estresse hídrico. Também, plantas transgênicas e controle foram inoculadas com o fungo Puccinia melanocephala demonstrando que o processo de transformação genética com o gene AtBI-1 alterou as características pré existentes de resistência a ferrugem marrom nas plantas transgênicas. Os estudos de tolerância ao défict hídrico foram realizados em dois experimentos, o experimento 1 com plantas transgênicas e controles de 90 dias e o experimento 2 com plantas de 60 dias. Plantas do experimento 1 foram analisadas quanto características morfológicas como número de estômatos e tricomas, altura e circunferência do colmo e após ficarem 24 dias sem água foram analisadas quanto a taxa fotossintética, comportamento estomático e conteúdo relativo de água nas folhas, enquanto no experimento 2 as plantas foram analisadas quanto aos teores de prolina, atividades das enzimas guaiacol peroxidase (GPOX), ascorbato peroxidase (APX) e catalase (CAT) após as plantas ficarem 17 dias sob déficit hídrico. Estas enzimas estão envolvidas em processos de desativação de elementos ativos de oxigênio. Os resultados demonstraram que as plantas transgênicas expressando o gene AtBI-1 possuem fenótipo de menor altura, e maior taxa fotossintética, maior comportamento estomático e maior conteúdo relativo de água nas folhas, e assim apresentam maior tolerância ao déficit hídrico que plantas controle. Contudo, houve baixo acúmulo de prolina, baixa atividade da GPOX, APX e CAT nas plantas transgênicas durante o estresse hídrico comparada com as plantas controle do mesmo tratamento. Porém foi observado alta atividade constitutiva da catalase nas plantas transgênicas. A atividade da catalase nestas plantas transgênicas sugere a possibilidade da interação entre AtBI-1 e calmudolinas. Futuros estudos podem contribuir para elucidar se a proteína BI-1 é essencial para a ativação das catalases por calmudolinas. / Sugarcane is one of the main agricultural crops in the Brazilian social and economic scenario. Water stress in the culture of sugarcane is the main limiting factor for increasing productivity accounting for physiological, biochemical and molecular plants that can trigger metabolic disturbances activating programmed cell death (MCP). Knowing that the BI-1 gene has the potential to reduce the effects of MCP triggered by biotic and abiotic stresses in plants, this study aimed to analyze transgenic sugarcane that express the BI-1 gene of Arabidopsis thaliana (AtBI-1) under water stress. Also, transgenic and control plants were inoculated with Puccinia melanocephala fungus demonstrating that the genetic transformation process with the AtBI-1 gene altered the pre-existing characteristics of brown rust resistance in transgenic plants. Studies of tolerance to water deficit were performed in two experiments, the experiment 1 was prepared with transgenic and control plants with 90 days and the experiment 2 used plants with 60 days. Plants from experiment 1 were analyzed as for morphological characteristics such as number of stomata and trichomes, height and diameter of stem after plants being under water for 24 days as were analyzed photosynthetic rate, stomatal behavior, relative water content in leaves while in the experiment 2, plants were analyzed for the levels of proline, enzyme activities of guaiacol peroxidase (GPOX), ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and catalase (CAT) under water deficit for 17 days. These enzymes are involved in deactivation of active elements oxygen. The results demonstrated that the transgenic plants expressing the AtBI-1 gene presented the phenotype of lower height, higher index of leaf area, higher photosynthetic rate, higher stomatal behavior and higher relative water content in leaves than control plants increasing tolerance to drought stress. However, there were low levels of proline, low activity of GPOX activity, APX and CAT in transgenic plants during drought stress compared to control plants of the same treatment, but the observed high constitutive activity of catalase in transgenic plants. Catalase activity in these transgenic plants suggests the possibility of interaction between AtBI-1 and calmudolinas. Future studies may contribute to understand whether the BI-1protein is essential for the activation of catalase by calmudolinas.

L’amélioration génétique du blé tendre (Triticum aestivum L.), une des trois céréales les plus cultivées, représente un intérêt stratégique pour la sécurité alimentaire de la population mondiale. Cette amélioration génétique va nécessiter une meilleure compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires et physiologiques mis en jeu, et va aussi réclamer une efficacité accrue dans notre capacité à intervenir finement sur le génome. Les avancées majeures réalisées dans le domaine des biotechnologies ces dernières années permettent d’envisager de nouveaux champs d’action pour appréhender le fonctionnement des caractères d’intérêt agronomique du blé tendre, ainsi que pour son amélioration génétique, et fournissent également de nouveaux outils pour innover dans le domaine de l’édition des génomes. Nous avons cherché dans le cadre de cette thèse à développer des innovations chez blé tendre à partir de trois nouveaux outils issus des biotechnologies. Nous avons tout d’abord montré que l’extinction du gène pds par une stratégie de micro ARN artificiel à partir d’un micro ARN de riz permettait d’obtenir le phénotype attendu, et que l’expression du micro ARN artificiel était reliée à ce phénotype. Nous avons commencé à explorer la possibilité d’utiliser des microARN de blé pour réaliser la même extinction, sans résultat pour l’instant. Nous avons ensuite montré que des coupures spécifiques d’une séquence donnée peuvent être obtenues in vivo chez le blé tendre à l’aide d’une méganucléase, et que lorsque les sites de coupure encadrent une séquence donnée, une délétion du fragment encadré peut être obtenue. Nous avons enfin réalisé les premiers essais du système CRISPR-Cas9 au laboratoire et généré une lignée exprimant le transgène Cas9 de façon constitutive. Des résultats inattendus obtenus dans le cadre de ces expérimentations nous ont de plus permis d’améliorer le procédé de transformation génétique du blé tendre utilisé au laboratoire. Les applications de nos résultats pourront être utilisées pour des expérimentations de validation de gènes et de compréhension des mécanismes moléculaires associés, mais aussi à l’avenir pour intervenir directement et de plus en plus finement sur le génome du blé. Les choix stratégiques en termes de développement technologique et d’innovation dans le domaine des biotechnologies et dans le cadre des objectifs d’un laboratoire public sont discutés. / The genetic improvement of common wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), one of the three most cultivated cereals, is of strategic interest to the food security of the world's population. This genetic improvement will require a better understanding of the molecular and physiological mechanisms involved, and will also require increased efficiency in our ability to modify finely the genome. In recent years, the major advances in biotechnology have made it possible to envisage new fields of action for a deeply understanding of agronomic traits of wheat as well as for genetic improvement, and also provide new tools for innovate in the field of genome editing. In this PhD manuscript, we sought to develop innovations for wheat improvement using three new biotechnology tools. We first demonstrated that the extinction of the pds gene by a strategy of artificial micro RNA succeeded in the obtaining of the expected phenotype and that the expression of the artificial RNA was related to this phenotype. We have begun to explore the possibility of using wheat microRNAs to achieve the same extinction, with no results at this time. We have then shown that specific cuts of a given sequence can be obtained in vivo in wheat using a meganuclease, and that when the cleavage sites frame a given sequence a deletion of the framed fragment may be obtained. We finally carried out the first tests of the CRISPR-Cas9 system in the laboratory and generated a line expressing the Cas9 transgene constitutively. Unexpected results obtained during these experiments have also made it possible to improve the process of genetic transformation of soft wheat used in the laboratory. The applications of our results can be used for gene validation experiments and a better understanding of the molecular mechanisms involved, but also in the future for wheat genome editing. Strategic choices in terms of technological development and innovation in the field of biotechnology and within the framework of the objectives of a public laboratory are discussed.