The thesis covers the topic of sustainable finance regarding its terminology, policy strategies and overall goals. In addition, it specifically deals with the way sustainable finance is perceived by central banks and other financial market regulators. The first chapter explains terms like "ESG investing," "positive finance," "socially responsible investment, "principles for responsible investing" "or "green finance" and points out the differences between them. The second chapter concerns with sustainable finance policy strategies adopted both by private businesses and public institutions. Mentioned are, among others, the types of ESG screening methods used by investors, the EU Green Taxonomy, the EU Shareholders' Rights Directive and its framework, the European Green New Deal or the concept of a sustainable fiduciary duty principle. It also touches on sustainable, green taxation in the shape of carbon taxes or emission trading schemes. The third chapter explores the objectives sustainable finance try to meet, specifically the ones having to do with climate change. The chapter entails a summary of the potential climate change scenarios as laid out by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. The fourth chapter deals with the role that central banks can play in sustainable finance as they gradually step...

Background:  Entering a new geological epoch where humans are the main force shaping of the biosphere, have forced an immense stress onto society and the Planet with regards to sustainability. The United Nations and the Paris Agreement have strongly emphasized the urgent need to allocate finance onto urgently mitigating climate change. The financial sector has confronted this challenge through providing sources of finance to meet sustainability requirements. Thus, green bonds emerge as an instrument aimed to cooperate in the transition towards advancing sustainability.    Purpose: Given the ambiguity of green bonds impacts on environmental sustainability, this study explores the contributions of green bonds towards a fruitful transition towards sustainability. Being crucial stakeholders in the transition towards sustainability, these contributions have been examined in the context of Swedish municipalities    Method: To examine the contributions of green bonds in the given context, an exploratory research was conducted using a multiple case study design. Five municipalities, two investors and a municipal funding agency were interviewed though semi-structured interviews. A thematic analysis was performed on the empirical data. First, a within-in case analysis was conducted following a cross-case analysis allowing to find emergent and common patterns.   Conclusion: The green financial instrument does not appear to be a main driver of sustainability, nor does it have a significant influence on the environmental impact of the municipalities’ investment projects. Nevertheless, the study finds that green bonds contribute to advancing sustainability in municipalities through three main areas: Financial impetus, organizational effects and structure and requirements. Thus, the municipalities studied provide evidence that green bonds grant a small reduction in the cost of capital, produce organizational effects like increasing collaboration between the environmental and financial department and enhances transparency through its structure and requirements.

In the banking sector, there is an ongoing development in green financing with the emergence of green corporate loans. However, there are variations in banks risk’ management and the level of acceptance for issuing green loans. Similarly, there are disparities in the role of different sources of information to assess organisational risks, as per ESG ratings and sustainability reporting. As for now, there is a limited level of research of the operational work in this area as risks and risk management are dynamic and changes with the development of society. Thus, this study explores the operational risk management of green corporate loans and perceives the role of organisations’ ESG rating and sustainability reporting in the same context when assessing risks.  The study applies a qualitative method with triangulation, as it combines empirical material from five semi-structured interviews and five sustainability reports from the respective bank to get nuances of the research area. The results show that risk management is partially based on bankers' own perceptions of companies and their relationships with their clients. The level of acceptance of risks is spread which delimits standardisations in processes of assessment. Individual frameworks are used by banks to manage green corporate loans, but these require continuous development and some environmental knowledge. Additional sources of information in assessments therefore play a big role and can be seen as the main source to understand organisations and their related risks. However, organisations’ ESG ratings and sustainability reporting are still perceived with a lack of credibility and should be used with precaution in the assessment. Thus, this study contributes to an extension of the empirical material as it demonstrates implications with variations in risk management and provides indications of the role of additional information sources when assessing risks.

Banks have a vital role in the society-wide green transition. However, the field of green finance is relatively unexplored in academia. Our study aims to extend the knowledge of green corporate loans by investigating what soft and hard information Swedish banks use to overcome the information asymmetry in the lending decision and what role the information plays. Based on fragmented literature, a tentative model is created, and used to form the study. The study adopts a qualitative research strategy and semi-structured interviews were held with respondents from the four largest banks in Sweden. Using the collected data, the tentative model was corroborated and adjusted, resulting in a finalised model. The study found that the following information components are used to evaluate green corporate loans: financial statements, collaterals, credit score, owners, character, micro and macro analysis, ESG approach and green criteria. Although most emphasis is put on hard information, soft information is also necessary for banks to make a lending decision. The study has multiple practical contributions relating to challenges posed by soft information, and the loan assessment. Theoretically, the study contributes with a baseline for future studies investigating the topic of green corporate loans.

To achieve net zero emissions by 2050, a $275 trillion investment is needed, with the private sector playing a significant role. Green corporate bonds are a popular financing method, having grown to 6% of global corporate bonds in 2021. Despite their potential, green bonds face challenges, such as lack of standardization, high costs, and greenwashing risks. Tokenization through Security Token Offerings (STOs) can increase demand and supply for green bonds by enabling fractional ownership, eliminating intermediaries, and improving transparency with blockchain technology and IoT sensors. This drives demand, increases liquidity, and reduces greenwashing risk. STOs also allow smaller investments and finance access for SMEs.This study employs a multi-criteria decision-making model to select a blockchain platform for STOs in green bonds. The process involves identifying platforms, defining features, evaluating suitability, and selecting the platform that best aligns with green bond STO requirements. / För att uppnå netto nollutsläpp till 2050 krävs en investering på 275 biljoner dollar, där den privata sektorn spelar en betydande roll. Gröna företagsobligationer är en populär finansieringsmetod, som växte till 6% av de globala företagsobligationerna 2021. Trots deras potential står gröna obligationer inför utmaningar, som brist på standardisering, höga kostnader och risker med greenwashing. Tokenisering genom Security Token Offerings (STOs) kan öka efterfrågan och tillgången på gröna obligationer genom att möjliggöra bråkägande, elimineramellanhänder och förbättra transparensen med blockkedjeteknik och IoT-sensorer. Detta driver efterfrågan, ökar likviditeten och minskar risken för greenwashing. STO tillåter också mindre investeringar och finansieringsåtkomst för små och medelstora företag.Denna studie använder en flerkriteriemodell för beslutsfattande för att välja en blockkedjeplattform för STO i gröna obligationer. Processen innefattar identifiering av plattformar, definition av funktioner, utvärdering av lämplighet och val av den plattform som bäst överensstämmer med kraven för gröna obligationers STO.

Kapital- och finansmarknadens beskrivs inneha en viktig roll i omställningen till ett hållbart samhälle och särskilt i den svenska bygg- och fastighetssektorn som idag står för en stor del utav de totala växthusgasutsläppen. Kapital åsidosatt till hållbara investeringar, s.k. grön finansiering, har ända sedan den första gröna obligationen emitterades år 2008 kraftigt växt i volym och lockat till intresse. De svenska fastighetsbolagen har särskilt anammat gröna finansieringsprodukter som gröna lån/obligationer. Med anledning av detta är syftet med denna studie att utvärdera hur svenska fastighetsbolag tillämpat gröna finansieringsinstrument och om det faktiskt leder till en miljöförbättring. För att uppfylla studiens syfte utgår studien från två frågeställningar. Den första frågeställningen innefattar tillämpningen av grön finansiering hos svenska fastighetsbolag. Den andra mäter sambandet mellan andelen grön finansiering och miljöprestation hos fastighetsbolagen. Studien genomförs genom både kvalitativa metoder i form av litteraturstudier, dokumentstudier och intervjustudier samt kvantitativa metoder i form av regressionsanalyser. Resultatet från de kvalitativa studierna tyder på att fastighetsbolag använder grön finansiering på grund av det signalvärde och de varumärkesbyggande effekterna som det medför. Resultatet i regressionsanalysen visar på att sambandet mellan andelen grön finansiering och miljörelaterade nyckeltal som energianvändning, koldioxidutsläpp och vattenförbrukning är svagt. Ett starkt samband kan dock konstateras mellan andelen miljöcertifierade fastigheter och andelen grön finansiering. Slutsatserna som dras i studien antyder på att grön finansiering inte är ett tillräckligt tillförlitligt mått på hur miljövänligt ett fastighetsbolag är. Vidare konstateras det att miljöcertifierade byggnader eller projekt har en högre sannolikhet att finansieras genom grön finansiering. Fastighetsbolagen antas även engagera sig i användandet av grön finansiering av antingen CSR skäl i hopp om att det på längre sikt ska visa sig lönsamt eller för att stärka fastighetsbolagets varumärkesprofil. / The capital and financial markets are being described as having an important role in the transition to a sustainable society and especially in the Swedish construction and real estate sector, which today accounts for a large part of the total greenhouse gas emissions. Capital regarded for sustainable investments, so-called green financing, has since the first green bond issued in 2008 grown strongly in volume and attracted interest. The Swedish real estate companies have especially adopted green financing products such as green loans / bonds. Due to this, the purpose of this study is to evaluate how Swedish real estate companies have applied these forms of green financing and whether it leads to an environmental improvement. To fulfill the purpose of the study, the study is based on two questions. The first question covers the application of green financing by Swedish real estate companies. The second measures the relationship between the proportion of green financing and environmental performance of the real estate companies. The study is carried out through both qualitative methods in the form of literature studies, document studies and interview studies as well as quantitative methods in the form of regression analyzes. The results from the qualitative studies indicate that real estate companies use green financing due to the signal value and the brand-building effects that it entails. The results of the regression analysis show that the relationship between the share of green financing and environmental-related key figures such as energy use, carbon dioxide emissions and water consumption is weak. However, a strong connection can be found between the proportion of environmentally certified properties and the proportion of green financing. The conclusions drawn in the study suggest that green financing is not a sufficiently reliable measure of how environmentally friendly a real estate company is. Furthermore, it is stated that environmentally certified buildings or projects have a higher probability of being financed through green financing. The real estate companies are also assumed to be involved in the use of green financing for either CSR reasons in the hope that it will prove profitable in the long term or to strengthen the real estate company's brand profile.

The “statement” from senior decision-maker is a section in the sustainability           report, where the most “senior decision-maker” of the institution (such as CEO,            chairman, or equivalent senior position) gives the personal view about the           relevance of sustainability to the ​institution and its strategy for addressing           sustainability. Such a statement is one medium used by company leaders to            communicate their attitudes and values to stakeholders in sustainability reports.          Under commercial circumstances, sustainability is also referred to as Corporate          Social Responsibility (CSR). This paper analyzes Chinese and Nordics senior decision-makers’ perception of CSR within the banking sector. The research sample consists of statements of senior decision-makers from sustainability reports of four Chinese banks, respective four Nordic banks. Previous studies show that CSR conception is influenced by cultural and social backgrounds. By analyzing respective Chinese/Nordic senior decision-maker’s statement, this study isaimingtofindout how Chinese/Nordic culture and social concepts are promoted in their respective bank institutions, and therefore lead to different CSR focus and strategies. The results from the study show that Chinese senior decision-makers’ statements are strongly influenced by t​raditional Chinese philosophy and social background, especially Confucian and Taoism, as well as​Xi Jinping’s guidelines delivered at the 19th National Congress of the Communist and the 13th Five-Year Plan. In relation to the Nordic senior decision-makers the gender equality and racial equality were noted. Senior decision-makers of Chinese banks mainly focus on “social stability and progress”, “economic responsibility”, and “customers”,while         senior decision-makers of Nordic banks mainly focus on “economic responsibility”, “customers”, and “environmental protection”. / 公司资深决策者(首席执行官，董事长，或同等级别)会在可持续发展报告中 用一个章节来申明他们的观点。这个章节的内容涵盖可持续发展与该公司组 织架构的相关度，以及该公司可持续发展的战略和对策。公司领导通过这种 形式对股东传达公司的态度和价值观。在商业环境中，可持续发展也经常被 称为公司社会责任(CSR)。 本论文分析了中国和北欧银行业资深决策者们对于企业社会责任的认知。本 论文的研究对象是银行可持续发展报告中资深决策者的陈述观点，它们分别 取自4家中国银行和4家北欧银行。现存的研究指出公司社会责任这一概念以 及对其的认知受到文化和社会背景的影响。通过研究中国和北欧不同银行资 深决策者在可持续发展报告中的陈述及观点，本论文意在深入理解文化和社 会因素是如何在公司中得到，并最终影响公司社会责任的实践和战略。 研究结果显示中国传统哲学和社会背景深刻影响中国银行业资深决策者对于 可持续发展的陈述和观点，特别是儒家思想，道家思想，​和​习近平​在​19大​的 报告，​以及​中国​第​十三​个​五​年​规划。而在北欧，可持续发展报告主要受到性 别平等和种族平等方面​的​影响。在银行可持续报告中，中国的资深决策者主 要关注“社会平稳和发展”，“经济责任”，和“客户”，而北欧的资深决策者主 要关注“经济责任”，“客户”和“环境保护”。

The world’s energy structure today relies 80 % on fossil fuels, contributing to rising temperatures and a changing climate. Society is built upon heavy energy usage and consumption is forecasted to increase rather than decrease. This implies that today’s energy mix needs thorough reconstruction where renewable energy sources must be a bigger part of the mix. There are well-known and developed green energy solutions that are not being fully exploited by society, where one explanation is the lack of funding possibilities. Therefore, this paper aims to investigate green energy projects to present further insight, integrate the private sector, and increase investments. This is done by interviewing Swedish economic associations investing in wind power to learn about concepts and experiences that can be applied by new investors when entering the green energy market. Our findings revealed that the permit process was the biggest obstacle in establishing wind turbines leading to fewer investing opportunities for private investors. Wind power in Sweden is self-sufficient with various returns hence are in no vital need for support schemes to be economically sustainable. This concludes that the government should focus on improving the permit process rather than promoting renewable energy support schemes to reach their climate goals.

Human practices linked with speedy industrialization and globalization have, unfortunately,caused severe harm to the Planet. In the vicious circle for development, Countries proceededtowards forming developed economies, which resulted in rapid depletion of the available renewable and non-renewable resources. It was only after the effects of such reckless practices started showing globally (in terms of environmental issues such as climate change, rising pollution levels, etc.) that the realization about saving the Planet started settling in. Over the years, studies have been conducted to evaluate the damages caused to the Planet through several heavy industrial practices or even through smaller household practices (such as improper waste segregation and waste disposal), and attempts have been made to sensitize the world population about such issues and the growing need to incorporate sustainability intobusiness practices as well as a way of living. The Real Estate and Construction industries have been infamous for having practices which have not been considerate towards the environment. There have been numerous reports about harmful practices, such as the use of certain materials, which have had enormous emissions and have caused depletion of the environment. One of the ways the industry is now looking to make a positive impact is by adopting sustainability practices with finance, thus giving rise to the practice of ‘sustainable finance’ or ‘green finance’. This thesis focuses on studying how certain green finance instruments (sustainability linked bonds, green bonds, circular economy and impact investing) are being implemented for financing green projects and thereby promoting sustainability in the long run in these industries. The study has been conductive using a qualitative approach. The methodology involved adopting the triangulation method, including empirical data collection through extensive literature review along with conducting semi-structured interviews with professionals working iiwithin the field of green finance. The data collected was then analysed via an inductive approach.  The conclusion derived from the data collected shows a growing trend and a changing mindset (including accepting the risks involved) towards accepting the use of these green finance instruments in the best interest of the environment. The process of quantifying the impact caused by the use of green finance instruments as compared to the conventional finance methods is ongoing, and as a result, these instruments are still being researched and reworked for improvisation, which is an ongoing process. However, the presence of malpractices such as greenwashing serves as a hindrance to sustainable finance. Another major issue regarding this is the quantification of greenwashing. This also brings to light the need for increased regulation in this field. Nonetheless, it can be clearly concluded there is huge future scope for such instruments in the future. / Mänsklig verksamhet i samband med snabb industrialisering och globalisering har tyvärr orsakat allvarliga skador på planeten. I den onda cirkeln för utveckling fortsatte länderna mot att bilda utvecklade ekonomier, vilket resulterade i snabb utarmning av tillgängliga förnybara och icke-förnybara resurser. Det var först när effekterna av sådana hänsynslösa metoder började visa sig globalt (i form av miljöproblem som klimatförändringar, ökande föroreningsnivåer etc.) som insikten om att rädda planeten började slå igenom. Under årens lopp har studier genomförts för att utvärdera de skador som orsakats planeten genom flera tunga industriella metoder eller till och med genom mindre hushållsmetoder (såsom felaktig avfallssegregering och avfallshantering), och försök har gjorts för att sensibilisera världsbefolkningen om sådana frågor och det växande behovet av att integrera hållbarhet i affärsmetoder såväl som ett sätt att leva. Fastighets- och byggbranschen har varit ökänd för att ha metoder som inte har varit hänsynsfulla mot miljön. Det har kommit många rapporter om skadliga metoder, till exempel användning av vissa material, som har haft enorma utsläpp och orsakat utarmning av miljön. Ett av de sätt som branschen nu försöker påverka positivt är genom att anta hållbarhetspraxis inom finans, vilket har gett upphov till "hållbar finans" eller "grön finans". Denna avhandling fokuserar på att studera hur vissa gröna finansieringsinstrument (hållbarhetslänkade obligationer, gröna obligationer, cirkulär ekonomi och impact investing) implementeras för att finansiera gröna projekt och därigenom främja hållbarhet på lång sikt i dessa branscher.  Studien har genomförts med hjälp av en kvalitativ ansats. Metoden innebar att använda trianguleringsmetoden, inklusive insamling av empiriska data genom omfattande litteraturgenomgång tillsammans med semistrukturerade intervjuer med yrkesverksamma som arbetar inom området grön finansiering. De insamlade uppgifterna analyserades sedan med hjälp av en induktiv metod. Slutsatsen från de insamlade uppgifterna visar en växande trend och ett förändrat tankesätt (inklusive att acceptera de risker som finns) mot att acceptera användningen av dessa gröna finansieringsinstrument i miljöns bästa intresse. Processen att kvantifiera den påverkan som orsakas av användningen av gröna finansieringsinstrument jämfört med konventionella finansieringsmetoder pågår, och som ett resultat forskas dessa instrument fortfarande och omarbetas för improvisation, vilket är en pågående process. Förekomsten av oegentligheter som greenwashing utgör dock ett hinder för hållbar finansiering. En annan viktig fråga när det gäller detta är kvantifieringen av greenwashing. Detta belyser också behovet av ökad reglering på detta område. Trots detta kan man tydligt dra slutsatsen att det finns ett enormt framtida utrymme för sådana instrument i framtiden.

Green bonds are a growing and popular financial product that aims to channel capital towards environmentally friendly projects and promote sustainable development. Despite some efforts to increase credibility, the lack of standardization, for example in the reporting of environmental impacts, is still a problem in the green bond market. Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) as a tool to address these problems has been investigated by only a few studies, giving reason to further investigate its utilisation in the context of green bond-financed projects. This study investigated the use of LCA as a suitable tool to assess the eligibility and environmental impacts of projects financed through green bonds. The method included a document analysis of three common green bond standards to investigate the current use of LCA and life cycle thinking (LCT) based methods in the context of green bonds. Additionally, four green bond-financed projects were analysed to determine whether LCA is a suitable tool to assess their eligibility and report their environmental impacts with regard to providing relevant results in relation to criteria from the European Green Bond Standard (EUGBS). Furthermore, methodological challenges that can occur when conducting an LCA on the projects were investigated.   The results showed that LCA and LCT based methodologies are already in use by common green bond standards. However, they mainly occur in the criteria that determine whether a project is eligible or not to receive financing. Regarding the impact reporting no binding re-quirements exists for bond issuers to use LCA or LCT based methodologies. According to the results LCA is capable of reporting many relevant environmental impacts of the different pro-jects. However, different impacts were identified which are not covered by LCIA methods, which can limit the suitability of LCA as a method for impact reporting. This includes especially local impacts on the projects which are not covered by an LCA and would therefore be missed in the reporting. Various methodological challenges were identified when conducting an LCA on the projects, including allocation, system boundary, life cycle inventory, time span, data challenges, and challenges in the selection of functional units, which can impact LCA results and the comparison among projects. The results stress the necessity of future research on impact reporting and also for setting binding requirements for the impact reporting of green bonds. / Gröna obligationer är en växande och populär finansiell produkt som syftar till att kanalisera kapital till miljövänliga projekt och främja en hållbar utveckling. Trots vissa ansträngningar för att öka trovärdigheten är bristen på standardisering, till exempel när det gäller rapportering av miljöpåverkan, fortfarande ett problem på marknaden för gröna obligationer. Livscykelanalys (LCA) som ett verktyg för att hantera dessa problem har endast undersökts i ett fåtal studier, vilket ger anledning att ytterligare undersöka dess användning i samband med projekt finansi-erade med gröna obligationer. I denna studie undersöktes användningen av LCA som ett lämp-ligt verktyg för att bedöma stödberättigande och miljöpåverkan av projekt som finansieras ge-nom gröna obligationer. Metoden omfattade en dokumentanalys av tre vanliga standarder för gröna obligationer för att undersöka den nuvarande användningen av LCA och livscykeltän-kande (LCT) baserade metoder i samband med gröna obligationer. Dessutom analyserades fyra projekt som finansierats med gröna obligationer för att avgöra om LCA är ett lämpligt verktyg för att bedöma deras berättigande och rapportera deras miljöpåverkan med avseende på att tillhandahålla relevanta resultat i förhållande till kriterierna i European Green Bond Stan-dard (EUGBS). Vidare undersöktes metodologiska utmaningar som kan uppstå när man ge-nomför en LCA på projekten.   Resultaten visade att LCA- och LCT-baserade metoder redan används i gemensamma stan-darder för gröna obligationer. De förekommer dock främst i de kriterier som avgör om ett pro-jekt är berättigat eller inte att erhålla finansiering. När det gäller konsekvensrapportering finns det inga bindande krav på att obligationsemittenter ska använda LCA- eller LCT-baserade metoder. Enligt resultaten kan LCA rapportera många relevanta miljökonsekvenser av de olika projekten. Dock identifierades olika effekter som inte täcks av LCIA-metoder, vilket kan be-gränsa lämpligheten av LCA som metod för rapportering av effekter. Detta omfattar särskilt lokala effekter på projekten som inte omfattas av en LCA och som därför skulle missas i rap-porteringen. Olika metodologiska utmaningar identifierades när man genomförde en LCA för projekten, inklusive allokering, systemgränser, livscykelinventering, tidsspann, datautma-ningar och utmaningar i valet av funktionella enheter, vilket kan påverka LCA-resultaten och jämförelsen mellan projekt. Resultaten understryker behovet av framtida forskning om konse-kvensrapportering och även av att fastställa bindande krav för konsekvensrapportering av gröna obligationer.