<p>The purpose of this thesis is to investigate patterns in educational enrollment and attainment in educational levels among women in South Africa. Some evidence from the literature suggest a slow increase in women&rsquo / s education and employment opportunities in South Africa. However, little is known about the way in which this slow pattern reflects at all levels and fields of education with special reference to the female population in South Africa. The thesis aims at examining changes of attainment in women&rsquo / s education from a sociodemographic perspective between 2004 and 2007. Factors affecting women&rsquo / s education in South Africa are also considered as they play major roles in women&rsquo / s enrollment and completion at school. The study focuses on women through different social and demographic attributes, by taking account of variables such as age, education attainment, geographic areas, population group to name but a few. All educational institutions are covered and two female groups are considered, women at school and women who left school. The study makes use of already existing data from General Household Survey conducted in 2004 and 2007 respectively, to bring some comparative perspective. The scope of the study is national in that, all the nine provinces are covered making distinction of rural and urban areas.</p>

Introdução: O inquérito por telefone, quando comparado ao inquérito domiciliar possui vários atrativos, em especial baixo custo operacional e rapidez do processo de divulgação de resultados. No entanto, a exclusão de domicílios sem telefone fixo, pode representar série questão de validade nas estimativas obtidas. Objetivo: Avaliar vícios potenciais nos resultados divulgados no Sistema de Vigilância de Fatores de Risco para Doenças Crônicas por Inquérito Telefônico (VIGITEL) em município de baixa cobertura de domicílios com telefone fixo. Métodos: A partir de resultados levantados pelo Inquérito Domiciliar realizado no município de Rio Branco-AC, com cobertura de 41 por cento dos domicílios com telefone fixo, tentou-se localizar vícios introduzidos nos resultados do Vigitel. Foi usado método alternativo de ponderação para diminuir o vício da estimativa do Vigitel. Resultados: O Vigitel subestima a maioria das prevalências estimadas. Os pesos de pós-estratificação eliminam parcialmente o vício, cuja origem é proveniente de baixa taxa de cobertura de domicílios com telefone fixo. Por outro lado, o uso desses pesos, quando não necessário, potencializou o vício das variáveis não associadas à posse de telefone fixo. Conclusões: Em municípios de baixa taxa de cobertura de domicílios com telefone fixo, torna-se necessária a implementação de novo método de ponderação e estratégia de seleção de variáveis externas para construção dos pesos de pós estratificação, que minimizem o vício nas estimativas das variáveis levantadas / Introdução: O inquérito por telefone, quando comparado ao inquérito domiciliar possui vários atrativos, em especial baixo custo operacional e rapidez do processo de divulgação de resultados. No entanto, a exclusão de domicílios sem telefone fixo, pode representar série questão de validade nas estimativas obtidas. Objetivo: Avaliar vícios potenciais nos resultados divulgados no Sistema de Vigilância de Fatores de Risco para Doenças Crônicas por Inquérito Telefônico (VIGITEL) em município de baixa cobertura de domicílios com telefone fixo. Métodos: A partir de resultados levantados pelo Inquérito Domiciliar realizado no município de Rio Branco-AC, com cobertura de 41 por cento dos domicílios com telefone fixo, tentou-se localizar vícios introduzidos nos resultados do Vigitel. Foi usado método alternativo de ponderação para diminuir o vício da estimativa do Vigitel. Resultados: O Vigitel subestima a maioria das prevalências estimadas. Os pesos de pós-estratificação eliminam parcialmente o vício, cuja origem é proveniente de baixa taxa de cobertura de domicílios com telefone fixo. Por outro lado, o uso desses pesos, quando não necessário, potencializou o vício das variáveis não associadas à posse de telefone fixo. Conclusões: Em municípios de baixa taxa de cobertura de domicílios com telefone fixo, torna-se necessária a implementação de novo método de ponderação e estratégia de seleção de variáveis externas para construção dos pesos de pós estratificação, que minimizem o vício nas estimativas das variáveis levantadas

Objetivo. Adaptar e testar um sistema de vigilância de fatores de risco relacionados à prática de atividade física e sedentarismo para doenças crônicas não transmissíveis (DCNT) em uma área de atuação do Programa de Saúde da Família (PSF) no município de São Paulo. Material e métodos. Foi realizado um inquérito domiciliar em 1.805 adultos residentes em domicílios cadastrados no PSF da área de abrangência da unidade básica de saúde (UBS) Jardim Jaraguá no Município de São Paulo. O questionário utilizado foi adaptado do instrumento empregado nas entrevistas do sistema VIGITEL. Os indicadores desse sistema sobre prática de atividade física e sedentarismo foram analisados segundo gênero, faixa etária e escolaridade dos indivíduos. A reprodutibilidade dos indicadores foi avaliada comparando-se resultados obtidos na entrevista original e de outra entrevista repetida após período de 7 a 15 dias, em uma subamostra de 101 indivíduos (pelo cálculo de coeficientes kappa). Resultados. Atividades físicas no lazer, no deslocamento e na ocupação foram mais freqüentes em homens enquanto a atividade física em tarefas domésticas foi mais freqüente em mulheres. A condição de completa inatividade física foi mais freqüente em homens. Associação positiva entre escolaridade e atividade física foi encontrada, no sexo masculino, apenas para atividade no lazer e, no sexo feminino, para inatividade física. Associação inversa entre escolaridade e inatividade física foi observada no sexo masculino enquanto para o sexo feminino, houve associação inversa entre escolaridade e atividade física no ambiente doméstico. O sistema proposto reuniu características potenciais de simplicidade, rapidez, baixo custo e boa fidedignidade, revelando boa reprodutibilidade dos indicadores estudados uma vez que os mesmos apresentaram valores de coeficiente kappa com concordância moderada a substancial. Conclusões. Os resultados desse estudo demonstraram a viabilidade de práticas de vigilância relacionadas ao PSF. Ainda, os dados gerados pelo estudo apontaram alto nível de inadequação da prática de atividade física na população estudada destacando a necessidade de práticas de vigilância voltadas grupos populacionais específicos / Objective. To adapt and test a surveillance system of risk factors related to physical activity and inactivity to chronic non-communicable diseases (NCDs) in an area of operation of the Family Health Program (FHP) in the municipality of São Paulo. Material and methods. We conducted a household survey in 1,805 adults living in households enrolled in the PSF area covered by the basic health unit (BHU) Jardim Jaraguá in São Paulo. The questionnaire used was adapted from the instrument employed in the interviews of VIGITEL system. The indicators of this system on physical activity and inactivity were analyzed according to gender, age and education of individuals. The reproducibility of the indicators was assessed by comparing the results obtained in the original interview and in another interview repeated after a period of 7 to 15 days in a subsample of 101 individuals (by calculating kappa coefficients). Results: Physical activity during leisure, transportation and occupation were more frequent in men as physical activity in housework was more frequent in women. The condition of complete physical inactivity was more common in men. Positive association between education and physical activity was found in males for activity at leisure and in females for physical inactivity. Inverse association between education and physical inactivity was observed among males. There was an inverse association between education and physical activity at home among females. The proposed system met a potentially simple, rapid, low cost and good reliability, with good reproducibility of the indicators studied since they had values of kappa coefficient with moderate to substantial agreement. Conclusions. The results of this study demonstrate the feasibility of surveillance practices related to the FHP. Still, the data generated by the study showed high level of inadequate physical activity in this population highlights the need for surveillance practices aimed at specific population groups

Magister Philosophiae - MPhil / The purpose of this thesis is to investigate patterns in educational enrollment and attainment in educational levels among women in South Africa. Some evidence from the literature suggest a slow increase in women's education and employment opportunities in South Africa. However, little is known about the way in which this slow pattern reflects at all levels and fields of education with special reference to the female population in South Africa. The thesis aims at examining changes of attainment in women's education from a sociodemographic perspective between 2004 and 2007. Factors affecting women's education in South Africa are also considered as they play major roles in women's enrollment and completion at school. The study focuses on women through different social and demographic attributes, by taking account of variables such as age, education attainment, geographic areas, population group to name but a few. All educational institutions are covered and two female groups are considered, women at school and women who left school. The study makes use of already existing data from General Household Survey conducted in 2004 and 2007 respectively, to bring some comparative perspective. The scope of the study is national in that, all the nine provinces are covered making distinction of rural and urban areas. / South Africa

Ce travail se concentre sur la place et le statut des femmes dans l’économie informelle. Qu’est ce qui donne à ces femmes l’élan et le courage de travailler dans des conditions précaires et défavorisées ? Quelles sont les caractéristiques distinctives des stratégies dont elles s’inspirent transcender leur position structurellement défavorisée au sein de l’économie ? Quelles sont les barrières auxquelles elles continuent de se heurter dans leurs efforts en vue de lutter contre les injustices de la société ? Afin de répondre à ces interrogations, nous avons réalisé en 2012 une enquête représentative auprès d’un échantillon de 1016 ménages dans la wilaya de Béjaia, parmi 783 femmes actives, un tiers des occupées exerce dans l’informel. L’analyse en coupe instantanée des données de l’enquête met en évidence l’hétérogénéité du secteur informel féminin (diversité des activités, raisons et niveau d’informalité variable, disparités salariales à l’égard des femmes). Celui-ci apparaît ni prépondérant, ni marginal. Nous distinguons deux groupes de femmes informelles, celles ayant des activités de subsistance et celles qui sont juste capables de satisfaire leurs besoins de base. L’analyse multidimensionnelle a permis de cerner différentes typologies de celles-ci (les travailleuses à domicile : couturières, les sous-traitantes de produits alimentaires, les nourrices, les coiffeuses…). L’éducation limitée, le manque de qualification, la richesse du ménage et les normes sociales jouent un rôle important dans l’intégration des femmes au marché du travail informel. Ces facteurs d’ordre économique et socioculturel accréditent l’idée de l’existence d’un secteur informel de survie pour les femmes et mettent en lumière leur rôle de reproduction sociale et non d’accumulation. / This work focuses on the position of women working in the informal economy. What gives these women the momentum and the courage to work in precarious and poor conditions? What are the distinctive features of the strategies that inspired them transcend their structurally disadvantaged position in the economy? What are the barriers they continue to face in their efforts to fight against society's injustices? To answer these questions, we conducted in 2012 a representative survey with a sample of 1016 households in the wilaya of Bejaia; among 783 women employed, one third exert informal activities. The cross-sectional analysis of the survey highlighted the heterogeneity of women in the informal sector. It appears that it is neither leading nor marginal. We distinguish two groups of informal women, those with subsistence activities and those who can barely meet their basic needs. Multivariate analysis identified different categories (homeworkers: dressmakers, sub-contracting food providers, nurses, hairdressers). Poor education, lack of qualifications, household wealth and the social norms play an important role in the integration of women in the informal labor market. These economic and socio cultural factors support the idea of the existence of an informal sector of survival for women and emphasize their role regarding social reproduction, not accumulation.

[pt] Esta dissertação avalia o impacto do nível educacional dos brasileiros, na sua remuneração, levando-se em conta o grupo da posição na ocupação por ele exercida. A análise é focalizada no universo de indivíduos ocupados com mais de 10 anos de idade, moradores na área urbana do Brasil. Isto é feito considerando como base de dados a Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios - PNAD para os anos de 1992 e 1999. Por se tratar de uma pesquisa feita por amostragem estratificada de conglomerados com múltiplos estágios de seleção, não se pode assumir as hipóteses usuais de modelagem das observações, tais como o comportamento IID (independente e identicamente distribuídos) dos dados. Por este motivo a modelagem é feita utilizando o pacote estatístico SUDAAN que é apropriado para o tratamento de dados obtidos por amostras complexas. / [en] This dissertation evaluates the impact of the educational level of the brazilian works on their income, accounting for their position in the occupation. The analysis will be focused in the universe of employed people over ten years of age that leave in the urban area of Brazil. This will be done for the data set of the Brazilian Household Sample Survey (Pesquisa Nacional por Amostra de Domicílios - PNAD) for the years of 1992 and 1999. As the PNAD is a stratified multistage cluster sample survey, the usual hypothesis for modeling observations such as the IID data behavior, cannot be assumed. For this reason the modeling process is performed making use of the statistical software SUDAAN, which is adequate to treat data, obtained from sample surveys.

Cette thèse explore deux questions autour de la précarité énergétique en France. Quel(s) indicateur(s) adopter pour quantifier la précarité énergétique et capturer ses multiples dimensions? Dans quelle mesure la fiscalité écologique pourrait-elle amplifier le phénomène ou, au contraire, constituer une opportunité de le combattre?Un premier chapitre introduit les enjeux sociaux et économiques de la précarité énergétique en France, ainsi que les défis que ce phénomène soulève pour les acteurs publics dans le cadre de la transition écologique (chapitre 1). Puis la thèse s'organise en deux grandes parties. La première partie concerne la quantification de la précarité énergétique. Je commence par rappeler les débats actuels autour de la mesure de la précarité énergétique et par souligner les limites des approches existantes (chapitre 2). Puis, j’explore la dimension transport du phénomène et propose un indice composite qui cible les différents facteurs qui contraignent la mobilité des ménages et leurs possibilités d’adaptation. Cet indice identifie trois niveaux d’exposition à une hausse des prix des carburants : précarité, vulnérabilité et dépendance (chapitre 3). Je poursuis ensuite la réflexion sur la construction d’un indice multidimensionnel de précarité énergétique et je cherche à mettre à jour ses implications politiques. Deux indices sont élaborés : un pour le logement et un pour le transport. Je montre comment ces nouveaux indices, parce qu’ils s’intéressent au cumul des facteurs qui désavantagent les ménages en matière d’énergie, permettent de limiter les erreurs d’inclusion et d’exclusion reprochées aux approches classiques. Une application dans le contexte français apporte de nouvelles perspectives sur le ciblage des réponses politiques et souligne la nécessité de remédier aux dimensions non monétaires de la précarité énergétique (chapitre 4).La seconde partie concerne les impacts distributifs de la fiscalité carbone. A partir d'une revue de la littérature, je précise les enjeux méthodologiques et les choix de modélisation pour rendre compte de manière satisfaisante de la distribution des impacts (chapitre 5). Je développe ensuite un modèle de microsimulation spécialement conçu pour évaluer l’impact sur les ménages de la taxe carbone française. Ce modèle simule, pour un échantillon représentatif de la population française, les taxes prélevées sur leur consommation d’énergie dans le logement et le transport. Je l’utilise pour quantifier l’impact de la taxe carbone sur les inégalités et la précarité énergétique. Enfin, j’explore ensuite différents scénarios de redistribution aux ménages avec pour objectif de corriger les iniquités engendrées - en particulier compenser la régressivité de la taxe carbone et combattre la précarité énergétique. J’évalue le coût de ces mesures au regard des recettes de la taxe carbone (chapitre 6). / This thesis explores two questions about fuel poverty in France: What indicator(s) should be adopted to quantify fuel poverty and capture its multiple dimensions? To what extent does ecological taxation amplify the phenomenon or, on the contrary, provides an opportunity to fight it?A first chapter introduces the social and economic issues of fuel poverty in France, as well as the challenges this phenomenon raises for public actors in the context of an ecological transition (chapter 1). Then the thesis is divided into two main parts.The first part deals with the measurement of fuel poverty. I start by highlighting the current debates on the measurement of fuel poverty and the limitations of existing approaches (chapter 2). Next, I explore the transport dimension of fuel poverty and I propose a composite index of the various factors that constrain household mobility and their possibilities to adapt to higher fuel prices. This index identifies three levels of exposure to rising fuel prices: precariousness, vulnerability and dependence (chapter 3). I then continue studying the design of a multidimensional index of energy poverty and I seek to uncover its political implications. Two indices are developed: one for housing and one for transport. I show how these new indices, through addressing the cumulative factors that disadvantage households in terms of energy, can help limit the inclusion and exclusion errorsfrom which conventional approaches suffer. Quantification in the French context brings new insights on the targeting of policy responses and emphasizes the need to address the non-monetary dimensions of fuel poverty (chapter 4). The second part studies the distributive impacts of carbon taxation. Based on a review of literature, I discuss the methodological issues and the modelling choices to represent the distribution of impacts (chapter 5). I then develop a microsimulation model to assess the impact of the French carbon tax on households. This model simulates, for a representative sample of the French population, the taxes levied on their energy consumption in housing and transport. I use this model to quantify the impact of the carbon tax on inequality and fuel poverty. Finally, I explore different scenarios of redistribution of carbon tax revenues to households, with the objective to correct the found inequities - in particular, to compensate for the regressivity of the carbon tax and to reduce fuel poverty. I evaluate the cost of these measures in respect to the amount of carbon tax revenues (chapter 6).

Introducción: La seguridad alimentaria engloba cuatro dimensiones: Disponibilidad, Acceso, Utilización y estabilidad. La anemia es una enfermedad prevalente en los niños peruanos menores de 5 años. La relación entre seguridad alimentaria y anemia sigue siendo muy estudiada en diferentes enfoques. Objetivo: Evaluar la asociación entre seguridad alimentaria y la ocurrencia de anemia en niños menores de 5 años en el año 2019, a nivel regional y nacional. Metodología: Estudio analítico transversal, secundario a bases de datos. Resultados: Respecto al análisis bivariado, se observó un mayor ingreso total (soles) en niños que no tenían anemia respecto a los que sí, con 809 y 783 soles, respectivamente (p<0.001). Asimismo, se encontró que los niños sin anemia tienen mayor ingesta de hierro por miembro de familia que los niños con anemia (6.66 mg vs 6.5 mg) (p<0.001). Respecto al análisis multivariado, la inocuidad de agua medida por la prueba de cloro, la adecuada ingesta de hierro por miembro de familia y la producción de alimentos trazadores no afectados por el cambio climático aumentan un 0.63 g/dl (IC: 0.25- 1.00), 0.12 g/dl (IC: 0.02- 0.23) y 0.08 g/dl (IC: 0.1-0.10) los niveles de hemoglobina ajustada por altura, respectivamente. Conclusión: La seguridad alimentaria en sus dimensiones de utilización y estabilidad influyen positivamente en el nivel de hemoglobina ajustada por altura y, por ende, en la ocurrencia de anemia en los niños menores de 5 años en el Perú para el año 2019. / Introduction: Food Security encompasses four dimensions: Availability, Access, Utilization and Stability. Anemia is a prevalent disease in Peruvian children under 5 years old. The relationship between food security and anemia continues to be widely studied in different approaches. Objective: To evaluate the association between food security and the occurrence of anemia in children under 5 years old in 2019, regionally and nationally. Material and Method: Cross-sectional analytical study, secondary to databases. Results: Regarding the bivariate analysis, a higher total income (soles) was observed in children who did not have anemia compared to those who did, with 809 and 783 soles, respectively (p<0.001). Likewise, it was found that children without anemia have a higher intake of iron per family member than children with anemia (6.66 mg vs 6.5 mg) (p<0.001). Regarding the multivariate analysis, the safety of water measured by the chlorine test, the adequate intake of iron per family member and the production of tracer foods not affected by climate change increase by 0.63 g/dl (CI: 0.25-1.00). , 0.12 g/dl (CI: 0.02-0.23) and 0.08 g/dl (CI: 0.1-0.10) height-adjusted hemoglobin levels, respectively. Conclusions: Food security in its utilization and stability dimensions positively affects the hemoglobin level adjusted for height and, therefore, the occurrence of anemia in children under 5 years of age in Peru for the year 2019. / Tesis

The study focused on an evaluation of the impact of food aid on food security in the area of Ngabu in the southern part of Malawi. An evaluation was needed to find out whether the food aid approach to food insecurity was the one best suited to Ngabu and whether the government's approach had produced the intended results. This study showed that food aid, when timely used, has helped to raise the dietary status and nutrition and consumption of many households in Ngabu in times of natural disaster. Food aid, however, has had a negative impact on food security by creating laziness, food aid dependency and low food production since the source of food it offers is easier to come by than that by production. The impact of food aid on the markets of Ngabu, however, has been minimal. / Development Studies / M.Admin. (Development Studies)

The objective of this study was to develop an understanding of the effects of the construction of hydro dams on nearby communities. The construction of the 400 megawatt Bui dam (8o16I 42II N, 2o143I 9 I I W) in Ghana has inundated seven communities and nearly a quarter of Bui National Park, including the destruction of community resources that provide for the livelihood needs of the people living near the dam. The dam led to the resettlement of seven communities, coordinated by the Bui Power Authority. Concerns expressed about the resettlement process indicate some weakness in stakeholder consultations relating to the resettlement, as well as weakness in the development of opportunities to address the anticipated effects of the Bui dam, including effects on community assets. These issues were examined through a study of how the construction of Bui Dam was perceived by local communities representing several ethnic-linguistic groups, including the Ewe, Mo, and Nafana. A mixed methods approach was used in the research, including document analysis, quantitative interviews of 329 households, key informant interviews with 22 households, and case studies of four families, including two families each from resettled and non-resettled communities. Data was obtained from 13 nearby communities, 7 of which had been relocated because of the dam. The study considered examined how the Bui Dam was perceived to influence seven capital assets: cultural; natural; social; human; political; physical; and financial. Overall, people perceive these capital assets to be decreasing in most aspects as a result of the Bui Dam, with some variability among households. This variability was explored through analysis of a number of predictor variables: relocation, ethnicity, livelihood type, age, and gender. Villages not relocated tended to perceive effects less negatively, as did people of Nafana ethnicity, and those who rely mainly on a farming livelihood. Gender and age had little effect: gender mediated effects on some aspects of social and political capital, while age affected only some aspects of cultural capital. Further analysis through the use of multiple regression analysis was undertaken to determine the relative influence of each of these predictor variables. Overall, each multiple regression analysis was significant, with high R squared values ranging from 0.761 to 0.260. The most powerful predictor was whether communities had been relocated or not (“relocate”), which was significantly related to each capital asset, with beta values ranging from 0.826 to 0.418. “Livelihood” was the next most important predictor variable, significantly related to all capital assets and with beta values varying from 0.520 to 0.231. “Ethnicity” was a significant predictor for four of seven capital assets, with beta values ranging from 0.133 to 0.055. “Gender” was a significant predictor variable for two of seven capital assets (social capital, with a beta value of 0.084, and political capital, with a beta value of 0.119). “Age” was a significant variable for just one capital asset (cultural), with a beta value of 0.038. In summary, this study is consistent with other studies that have examined the effect of dams on the livelihoods of nearby communities in that for most households the consequences have been negative, although not as severe for those households that were not forced to relocate, people of Nafana ancestry, or people who rely mainly on farming. The presence of Bui National Park may have moderated these negative effects somewhat, through employment provided in the park; and through ecosystem services such as vegetative cover in the park supporting cloud formation and rain occurrence / Graduate / 0366 / 0534 / 0628 / jonesarthur2002@yahoo.co.uk