This research looks to identify precursors to women becoming involved in trafficking for prostitution and/or sexual services in the United States. The failure to find patterns or trends regarding why women are trafficked or what types of women are trafficked most often, helps dispel some myths regarding the stereotypical victim of trafficking.

無 / According to Taiwanese official data in 2008, there are estimated 450,000 new immigrant women came to Taiwan for marriage; who are usually called “foreign brides.” Most new immigrant women come from Mainland China and Southeast Asia, and they have become the fifth largest ethnic group in Taiwan in the past decade. However, new immigrants are the vulnerable and disadvantageous minority groups in Taiwan’s society. They have often been ill-treated and suffered social discrimination; thus creates many social problems. New immigrant protection Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs), with their dedication, passion, and flexibility, help resolve numerous plights and problems for new immigrants. Another emphasis of this study focuses on the NGO’s campaign for anti-human trafficking in Taiwan. Human trafficking is a serious and intolerable crime which the efforts of countries worldwide to combat human trafficking are watched and evaluated by U.S. In June 2008, the U.S. State Department announced the Trafficking in Persons Report 2008; in which Taiwan was ranked “Tier 2,” indicating that more anti-trafficking efforts need to be made. NGOs around the world are engaged in combating human trafficking in variety activities including prevention, prosecution, protection, rescues/raids, reintegration, and repatriation. NGOs often work with few resources yet can be effective in complimenting the activities of governments, or even taking the place of government efforts. To combat human trafficking, Taiwanese NGO such as Taipei Women’s Rescue Foundation is inquired by international NGOs about Taiwanese government’s strategy. The roles of NGOs in resolving social problems are getting stronger and thus can not be ignored. Through literature review and in-depth interviews, this paper addresses and examines several issues on new immigrant women and human trafficking in Taiwan; also, how new immigrant protection NGOs in Taiwan deal with those issues is discussed.

The aim of this study is to find out how one organisation in Moldova is working with the issue of human trafficking. It will therefore be explained how the professionals in that organisation describe how the human trafficking situation has developed in Moldova according to them and how they work and prevent the issue according to that developed situation. This study is a qualitative study and has been carried out utilizing 14 semi-structured interviews. The information given from the interviews has been categorized, and then analysed in relation to previous research and Bronfenbrenner's ecological system theory. This theory is applied to explain how an individual's development is affected by factors on several levels; micro-, meso-, exo-, macro- and chronosystems. The causes for human trafficking explained by the professionals included the culture, religion, economics and the history of the country, and these in turn can have affected the family and the view of one’s self. The conclusions based on this study are that because the factors that could be causes for human trafficking are found on all the levels, it is important that social workers and the society has this in mind and as an approach when dealing with human trafficking. / Syftet med den här studien har varit att ta reda på hur en organisation i Moldavien arbetar med den aktuella situationen gällande människohandel som finns i landet. Det kommer därför att förklaras hur de professionella i den specifika organisationen beskriver hur de sett att situationen utvecklats i Moldavien och hur de arbetar preventivt med problemet i förhållande till den utvecklade situationen. Studien är kvalitativ och har genomförts med hjälp av 14 semi-strukturerade intervjuer. Informationen från intervjuerna har kategoriserats för att sedan analyseras mot tidigare forskning och Bronfenbrenners ekologiska systemteori. Denna teori är applicerad för att förklara hur en individs utveckling påverkas av faktorer på flera nivåer; mikro-, meso-, exo-, makro- och chronosystem. Orsakerna till människohandel som är förklarade av de professionella innefattade kultur, religion, landets ekonomi och historia, och dessa i sin tur kan ha påverkat familjen och synen på sig själv. Slutsatserna som är möjliga att dra utifrån denna studie är att eftersom faktorerna, som kan vara orsaker till människohandel, återfinns på alla olika nivåer är det också viktigt att socialarbetare och samhället har detta i åtanke och som angreppssätt vid arbetet med människohandel.

O tráfico de pessoas configura-se atualmente como a terceira atividade mais lucrativa no mundo e as estimativas sobre seu volume e rendimentos ganham novos números a cada ano. No ano 2000, a Organização das Nações Unidas reconheceu formalmente a necessidade de se lidar com o problema e estabeleceu o principal instrumento jurídico sobre o tema, a Convenção das Nações Unidas contra o Crime Organizado Transnacional (conhecida como Convenção de Palermo), complementada por três Protocolos Adicionais, sendo um deles especificamente relativo ao tráfico de mulheres e crianças. Isso posto, os objetivos deste trabalho são de duas ordens: (1) compreender o papel de características domésticas na ratificação dos Estados a compromissos internacionais, mais especificamente ao Protocolo Adicional à Convenção das Nações Unidas contra a Criminalidade Organizada Transnacional relativo à Prevenção, à Repressão e à Punição do Tráfico de Pessoas, em especial de Mulheres e Crianças e (2) compreender a formação da agenda decisória brasileira sobre o tema e a influência do cenário internacional para isso. Para o primeiro, fazemos uso do arcabouço teórico-metodológico fornecido por estudos que explicam a adesão de países à regimes internacionais, sobretudo os de direitos humanos, empregamos metodologia quantitativa, adotamos como série temporal o período compreendido entre 2000 e 2011, tomamos como amostra os 193 países membros das Nações Unidas e selecionamos como variáveis independentes: regime de governo, tempo de democracia, novas democracias, região geográfica de localização do país, indicador de tráfico humano, tipos de tráfico humano e PIB per capita. Para a segunda dimensão, qualitativa, fazemos uso do arcabouço da área de políticas públicas, sobretudo os estudos relacionados ao processo de formação de agenda e o Modelo de Fluxos Múltiplos, e mapeamos as políticas públicas referentes ao tema produzidas entre 2000 e os dias atuais no Brasil. / Human Trafficking is now the third most profitable activity in the world, and estimates of its volume and earnings are gaining new numbers each year. In 2000, the United Nations formally recognized the need to address the problem and established the main legal instrument on the subject, the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime (known as the Palermo Convention), complemented by three Additional Protocols, one of which specifically concerns trafficking in women and children. This paper has two objectives: (1) to understand the role of domestic characteristics in States ratification to international commitments, more specifically to the Protocol to Prevent, Suppress and Punish Trafficking in Persons Especially Women and Children, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, and (2) to understand the Brazilian agenda-setting on the subject and the influence of the international scenario for this. For the first objective, we make use of the theoretical-methodological framework provided by studies that explain the adhesion of countries to international regimes, especially those of human rights, we use quantitative methodology, we use as time series the period between 2000 and 2011, we take as sample the 193 countries part of the United Nations and we selected as independent variables: regime of government, time of democracy, new democracies, geographical location of the country, indicator of human trafficking, types of human trafficking and GDP per capita. For the second dimension, the qualitative one, we make use of the public policy framework, especially the studies related to the process of agenda setting, and we map the initiatives related to the subject produced between 2000 and the present day in Brazil.

O presente estudo trata acerca do Tráfico de Seres Humanos. Analisando a realidade por trás desse mercado ilícito através de seu desenvolvimento histórico, sua evolução passada até os dias de hoje; sua territorialidade e geografia, demonstrando que o tema é um problema de territorialização, com fluxos e fontes bem definidas; seu mercado e economia, para entender seu processo operacional. Objetivo será então o aprofundamento do tema para entender seu funcionamento geral e a desmistificação de problemáticas que giram em torno do assunto. / The study focuses on Trafficking in Human Beings. Looking at the reality behind this illicit market through its historical development, the evolution until today; its territoriality and geography, demonstrating that theme is a territorial problem, with well-defined streams and sources; its market and economy, to understand the operational process. Then the main goal will be to deepen the theme to understanding the general functioning and the demystification of issues that revolve around the subject.

O Estado contemporâneo enfrenta duas realidades que exigem um esforço imediato da sua parte, quais sejam, a necessidade da proteção integral dos direitos humanos e o efetivo combate à criminalidade organizada. Nesse respeito, observa-se que esse panorama sofre uma forte influência do processo de internacionalização e da dinamicidade de um mundo ―sem fronteiras‖, que, apesar dos benefícios inegáveis a outros campos da vida social, como na economia, acarretam a transnacionalização do crime e a proliferação de espaços em que a efetividade estatal é reduzida. Desse modo, o objetivo do presente trabalho é verificar a adequação da cooperação penal internacional como meio de combate à criminalidade organizada transnacional ocorrente na Tríplice Fronteira entre o Brasil, Argentina e Paraguai, na região de Foz do Iguaçu. A análise do caso possibilita identificar a tensão existente entre a soberania estatal, calcada no princípio da territorialidade, e a internacionalização, que pressupõe a abertura das fronteiras. No âmbito do Direito Penal, em razão da titularidade exclusiva do jus puniendi, a tutela dos direitos afetados pela criminalidade transfronteiriça deve ser atingida, especificamente no caso do tráfico de pessoas que ocorre na Tríplice Fronteira, por meio da cooperação entre os Estados que compõem a região. Identifica-se, nesse caso, que dois passos primordiais devem ser adotados: a criação de mecanismos de cooperação e a harmonização dos regramentos internos com os instrumentos internacionais. No caso específico, observa-se que há uma tendência à harmonização como alternativa a facilitar a repressão ao tráfico de pessoas pelos países da Tríplice Fronteira, sobretudo em vista da adesão dos ordenamentos nacionais à Convenção de Palermo e aos seus protocolos adicionais, que ditam normas para o combate à criminalidade organizada transnacional. Além disso, a adesão a pactos internacionais que privilegiam a assistência mútua em matéria penal, tal como a Convenção de Nassau e o Protocolo de São Luís, indicam a dimensão do processo de internacionalização e da criação de espaços regionais de integração jurídica. A consequência, e também a conclusão, é que a internacionalização é inevitável ao Estado, que enfrenta diversas crises. Nesse caso, sobretudo em razão da soberania, a cooperação se molda como alternativa mais apropriada para o cenário atual na região da Tríplice Fronteira, mostrando-se necessária a adequação dos ordenamentos dos países aos regramentos internacionais, por meio da harmonização e da internalização. / Nowadays, the State faces two realities that demand an immediate effort from it, that is, the need to fully protect the Human Rights and, at the same time, effectively combat organized crime. In this sense, we observe that this panorama is submitted to a strong influence of the internalization process and the dynamics of a borderless world that, in spite of the undeniable benefits to other fields of social live, such as economics, bring about the ―transnationality‖ of crime and emergency of spaces in which the State effectivity is reduced. Therefore, the objective of this work is to verify the adequacy of the mutual legal assistance in the combat of the transnational criminality that takes place in the tri-border of Brazil, Argentina and Paraguay, in the Foz do Iguaçu region. The case analysis enables to identify the existing tension between sovereignty, based in the territoriality principle, and the internationalization, which presuppose the opening up of the frontiers. In the case of the Criminal Law, due to the exclusive control of the jus puniendi by the State, the protection of the rights affected by the transnational criminality is mandatory, specifically in the case of the human trafficking that occurs in the tri-border, by means of the cooperation between the States that exist in the region. We identify, in this case, that two primordial steps must be adopted: the creation of cooperation mechanisms and the harmonization of the internal Law in accordance with the international treaties. In the specific study, we observe that there is a tendency towards the harmonization in the combat of the human trafficking by the countries of the tri-border, specially due to the participation in the Palermo Convention and its additional protocols, which dictate norms to the combat of the transnational organized crime. Besides, the participation in international treaties that favor the mutual legal assistance in criminal matters, such as the Nassau Convention and the San Luis Protocol, indicate the dimension of the internationalization process and the creation of regional juridical integration spaces. The consequence, and also the conclusion, is that the internationalization is inevitable to the State, which faces various crises. In this case, specially due to the sovereignty, the cooperation is set as the most appropriate alternative to the actual scenery in the tri-border region, demonstrating the need to adequate the internal order of the countries to the international order, by means of the harmonization and the internalization.

At present, human trafficking is a very lucrative business. It is the third largest illegal market after the trade in arms and drugs, even some authors suggest that in the near future it could get in the first place "in the ranking." For what reason is the trafficking in human beeings so profitable and how states are trying to tackle this phenomenon? What does actually human trafficking involve and what are its impact on the current global world? Although there is a wide range of initiatives and programs, a deeper analysis of the actual situation in the States shows that neither the process of implementation of international standards nor the law enforcement is going smoothly. The aim of my work is to illuminate the phenomenon of human trafficking in regions of Africa and Europe with regard to the operation of international and non-governmental organizations. Firstly to point out that there are some shortcomings in the implementation and compliance with laws on trafficking in persons by States, and secondly that human trafficking is not only the problem of developing world, but it is a growing global problem involving currently also the developed states. The fight against trafficking in human beings requires global action and cooperation of various actors of international relations. It would be more desirable to have a clooser cooperation of international organizations and States particularly in the field of implementation and law compliance.

Este trabalho tem o objetivo de realizar uma pesquisa empírica acerca do desenvolvimento do tema de tráfico internacional de pessoas e como essa atividade ilegal tem implicações nas políticas públicas de países das Américas. O tráfico humano foi abordado sob a óptica das relações internacionais com foco no papel da Convenção de Palermo e seu Protocolo Adicional. Buscou-se analisar como este tratado internacional influenciou a adoção de políticas públicas e na política penal de 13 países selecionados das Américas, sendo um dos objetivos da pesquisa o de descrever e avaliar o processo de compliance que os Estados desenvolveram com frente às normas globais vigentes. A hipótese do artigo é a de que com o marco regulatório que foi a Convenção de Palermo, a ONU harmonizou as normas jurídicas domésticas das nações da amostra. Foram realizadas análises comparativas entre as políticas públicas adotadas nos países da região das Américas, buscando demonstrar correlações entre a influência prévia do crime organizado na região e o comportamento dos países no desenvolvimento das políticas públicas. / This work aims to conduct empirical research on the development of international human trafficking theme and how this illegal activity has implications for public policies in the Americas. Human trafficking was approached from the perspective of international relations with a focus on the role of the Palermo Convention and its Additionals Protocols. It sought to analyze how this international treaty has influenced the adoption of public policies and penal policy of 13 selected countries in the Americas, been one of the research´s aims to describe and evaluate the compliance process that national states have developed to face the current global standards. The hypothesis of the article is that with the regulatory framework that was the Palermo Convention, the United Nations harmonized the domestic legal provisions of the selected nations. Comparative analyzes were performed between public policies adopted in the countries of the Americas region, seeking to demonstrate correlations between the prior influence of organized crime in the area and the behavior of countries in the development of public policies.

Human trafficking, domestic minor sex trafficking (DMST), and commercial sexual exploitation of children (CSEC) are complex and multifaceted occurrences in the United States. As the numbers of youth ensnared in sexually exploitive situations increase, organizations and communities are called upon to address the ramifications of this abuse; little research was located, however, that examined collaborative networks and partnerships that address victim identification and mitigation of DMST and CSEC. The purpose of this qualitative single case study was to determine whether strategic partnerships existed within the community under investigation. The theoretical framework was environmental theory, as first described by Florence Nightingale; the conceptual framework was centered on collaborative networks. Research questions focused on victim identification and organizational strategies for collaboration and mitigation of sex trafficking. The research population was composed of 8 individuals working in organizations in a metropolitan area on the West Coast that served victims of DMST and CSEC. Data obtained from interviews were coded, compared, and analyzed for major and emergent themes. Findings indicated that, in the effort to identify victims, these 8 individuals needed to consider all children involved in prostitution as victims and not criminals. Further, their efforts toward mitigation needed to center on widespread education across the broader social spectrum of the issues with DMST and CSEC. These workers identified strategies identified to address DMST and CSEC included the "5 Ps": prevention, protection, prosecution, partnership, and policy. These findings may inform organizations and policy makers about how to make informed decisions about the needs and challenges of addressing sexually exploited youth.

University of Macau / Faculty of Law