During laparoscopic liver resection, the limited access to the organ, the small field of view and lack of palpation can obstruct a surgeon’s workflow. Automatic navigation systems could use the images from preoperative volumetric organ scans to help the surgeons find their target (tumors) and risk-structures (vessels) more efficiently. This requires the preoperative data to be fused (or registered) with the intraoperative scene in order to display information at the correct intraoperative position. One key challenge in this setting is the automatic estimation of the organ’s current intra-operative deformation, which is required in order to predict the position of internal structures. Parameterizing the many patient-specific unknowns (tissue properties, boundary conditions, interactions with other tissues, direction of gravity) is very difficult. Instead, this work explores how to employ deep neural networks to solve the registration problem in a data-driven manner. To this end, convolutional neural networks are trained on synthetic data to estimate an organ’s intraoperative displacement field and thus its current deformation. To drive this estimation, visible surface cues from the intraoperative camera view must be supplied to the networks. Since reliable surface features are very difficult to find, the networks are adapted to also find correspondences between the pre- and intraoperative liver geometry automatically. This combines the search for correspondences with the biomechanical behavior estimation and allows the networks to tackle the full non-rigid registration problem in one single step. The result is a model which can quickly predict the volume deformation of a liver, given only sparse surface information. The model combines the advantages of a physically accurate biomechanical simulation with the speed and powerful feature extraction capabilities of deep neural networks. To test the method intraoperatively, a registration pipeline is developed which constructs a map of the liver and its surroundings from the laparoscopic video and then uses the neural networks to fuse the preoperative volume data into this map. The deformed organ volume can then be rendered as an overlay directly onto the laparoscopic video stream. The focus of this pipeline is to be applicable to real surgery, where everything should be quick and non-intrusive. To meet these requirements, a SLAM system is used to localize the laparoscopic camera (avoiding setup of an external tracking system), various neural networks are used to quickly interpret the scene and semi-automatic tools let the surgeons guide the system. Beyond the concrete advantages of the data-driven approach for intraoperative registration, this work also demonstrates general benefits of training a registration system preoperatively on synthetic data. The method lets the engineer decide which values need to be known explicitly and which should be estimated implicitly by the networks, which opens the door to many new possibilities.:1 Introduction 1.1 Motivation 1.1.1 Navigated Liver Surgery 1.1.2 Laparoscopic Liver Registration 1.2 Challenges in Laparoscopic Liver Registration 1.2.1 Preoperative Model 1.2.2 Intraoperative Data 1.2.3 Fusion/Registration 1.2.4 Data 1.3 Scope and Goals of this Work 1.3.1 Data-Driven, Biomechanical Model 1.3.2 Data-Driven Non-Rigid Registration 1.3.3 Building a Working Prototype 2 State of the Art 2.1 Rigid Registration 2.2 Non-Rigid Liver Registration 2.3 Neural Networks for Simulation and Registration 3 Theoretical Background 3.1 Liver 3.2 Laparoscopic Liver Resection 3.2.1 Staging Procedure 3.3 Biomechanical Simulation 3.3.1 Physical Balance Principles 3.3.2 Material Models 3.3.3 Numerical Solver: The Finite Element Method (FEM) 3.3.4 The Lagrangian Specification 3.4 Variables and Data in Liver Registration 3.4.1 Observable 3.4.2 Unknowns 4 Generating Simulations of Deforming Organs 4.1 Organ Volume 4.2 Forces and Boundary Conditions 4.2.1 Surface Forces 4.2.2 Zero-Displacement Boundary Conditions 4.2.3 Surrounding Tissues and Ligaments 4.2.4 Gravity 4.2.5 Pressure 4.3 Simulation 4.3.1 Static Simulation 4.3.2 Dynamic Simulation 4.4 Surface Extraction 4.4.1 Partial Surface Extraction 4.4.2 Surface Noise 4.4.3 Partial Surface Displacement 4.5 Voxelization 4.5.1 Voxelizing the Liver Geometry 4.5.2 Voxelizing the Displacement Field 4.5.3 Voxelizing Boundary Conditions 4.6 Pruning Dataset - Removing Unwanted Results 4.7 Data Augmentation 5 Deep Neural Networks for Biomechanical Simulation 5.1 Training Data 5.2 Network Architecture 5.3 Loss Functions and Training 6 Deep Neural Networks for Non-Rigid Registration 6.1 Training Data 6.2 Architecture 6.3 Loss 6.4 Training 6.5 Mesh Deformation 6.6 Example Application 7 Intraoperative Prototype 7.1 Image Acquisition 7.2 Stereo Calibration 7.3 Image Rectification, Disparity- and Depth- estimation 7.4 Liver Segmentation 7.4.1 Synthetic Image Generation 7.4.2 Automatic Segmentation 7.4.3 Manual Segmentation Modifier 7.5 SLAM 7.6 Dense Reconstruction 7.7 Rigid Registration 7.8 Non-Rigid Registration 7.9 Rendering 7.10 Robotic Operating System 8 Evaluation 8.1 Evaluation Datasets 8.1.1 In-Silico 8.1.2 Phantom Torso and Liver 8.1.3 In-Vivo, Human, Breathing Motion 8.1.4 In-Vivo, Human, Laparoscopy 8.2 Metrics 8.2.1 Mean Displacement Error 8.2.2 Target Registration Error (TRE) 8.2.3 Champfer Distance 8.2.4 Volumetric Change 8.3 Evaluation of the Synthetic Training Data 8.4 Data-Driven Biomechanical Model (DDBM) 8.4.1 Amount of Intraoperative Surface 8.4.2 Dynamic Simulation 8.5 Volume to Surface Registration Network (V2S-Net) 8.5.1 Amount of Intraoperative Surface 8.5.2 Dependency on Initial Rigid Alignment 8.5.3 Registration Accuracy in Comparison to Surface Noise 8.5.4 Registration Accuracy in Comparison to Material Stiffness 8.5.5 Champfer-Distance vs. Mean Displacement Error 8.5.6 In-vivo, Human Breathing Motion 8.6 Full Intraoperative Pipeline 8.6.1 Intraoperative Reconstruction: SLAM and Intraoperative Map 8.6.2 Full Pipeline on Laparoscopic Human Data 8.7 Timing 9 Discussion 9.1 Intraoperative Model 9.2 Physical Accuracy 9.3 Limitations in Training Data 9.4 Limitations Caused by Difference in Pre- and Intraoperative Modalities 9.5 Ambiguity 9.6 Intraoperative Prototype 10 Conclusion 11 List of Publications List of Figures Bibliography

Das präoperative Staging ist von eminenter Bedeutung für die Planung einer differenzierten chirurgischen Therapiestragie für gastrointestinale Tumoren. Die endoskopische Sonographie hat sich inzwischen als das Verfahren mit der höchsten Genauigkeit in der lokoregionären Ausbreitungdiagnostik von Tumoren des Ösophagus, Magens, Pankreas und Kolorektums etabliert. Es bestehen jedoch verschiedene Limitationen, die den klinischen Stellenwert der bisher verfügbaren endosonographischen Techniken einschränken. Eine wesentliche Limitation der Endosonographie ist die ungenügende Sensitivität für Fernmetastasen. Ziel dieser Arbeit war es, die Ergebnisse des präoperativen Staging gastroinestinaler Tumoren durch innovative endosonographische Verfahren und die kombinierte laparoskopische Diagnostik mittels Staging-Laparoskopie und laparoskopischer Sonographie zu optimieren. Im Hinblick auf eine Verbesserung der lokoregionären Ausbreitungsdiagnostik wurden verschiedene neue diagnostische und interventionelle endosonographische Techniken entwickelt und klinisch evaluiert. Für die differenzierte Abklärung von Kurabilität und Resektabilität gastrointestinaler Tumoren im Rahmen der Staging-Laparoskopie wurde ein systematischer Untersuchungs-algorhythmus für die kombinierte laparoskopische Diagnostik etabliert. Die Ergebnisse der Staging-Laparoskopie im Vergleich zum konventionellen Staging wurden bei mehr als 600 Patienten prospektiv dokumentiert und der Stellenwert für die chirurgische Therapieplanung analysiert. Die Resultate unserer Untersuchungen demonstrieren, daß das lokoregionäre Staging gastrointestinaler Tumoren durch neue endosonographische Techniken wie die Minisonden-Endsonographie, 3D-Endosonographie und endosonographische Punktionsverfahren weiter verbessert werden kann. Als sensitive Methode für die Diagnostik intraabdomineller Fernmetasen stellt die Laparoskopie eine ideale Ergänzung des lokoregionären endosonographischen Staging dar. Der kombinierte Einsatz dieser minimal invasiven Techniken ermöglicht eine verbesserte präoperative Beurteilung der Resektabilität und Kurabilität gastrointestinaler Tumoren. Hierdurch kann die Planung einer differenzierten chirurgischen Tumortherapie optimiert werden. / Accurate preoperative staging of gastrointestainal tumors is essential for planning of surgical therapy. Endoscopic ultrasound has improved evaluation of locoregional tumor spread significantly. However, there are some technical problems that limit the clinical value of endoscopic ultrasound with currently available techniques. The most important limitations is the insatisfactory sensitivity for metastatic disease. We have developed new technologies for endoscopic ultrasound that can overcome most of the problems encountered with conventional endoscopic ultrasound. Furthermore a staging algorithm including the use of laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasound was evaluated to enhance the sensitivity for distant metastases. The results of our studies show that innovative endoscopic techniques, i.e. miniprobe ultrasonography, 3D endoscopic ultrasound and endoscopic ultrasound guided can improve the accuray of endoscopic ultrasound in the staging of gastrointestinal cancers. Laparoscopy and laparoscopic ultrasonography are ideal adjunct to endoscopic ultrasound, because both increase the sensitivity for distant metastases significantly. Combined staging with innovative endoscopic techniques and staging laparoscopy facilitates planning of surgery and multimodal therapy.

Die Laparoskopischen Operationsverfahren haben sich einen festen Platz im operativen Spektrum der Urologie erobert. Unstrittig ist ihr Einsatz im Rahmen der Therapie nicht maligner Erkrankungen, wie Hodensuche, Nephrektomie, Adrenalektomie oder der plevinen Lymphadenektomie. Hier kommen die entscheidenden Vorteile der Laparoskopie, eine deutlich reduzierte intra- und postoperative Morbidität im Vergleich zu den konventionell offenen Operationen mit kürzerer Krankenhausverweildauer und schnellerer Rekonvaleszens zum Tragen. Auch geringere postoperative Schmerzen, ein besseres kosmetisches Ergebnis und schnellere Rückkehr zum Alltagsleben sind Gründe, weshalb Patienten laparoskopische Techniken gegenüber konventionell offenen Operationen bevorzugen. Noch Gegenstand der Diskussion in der Deutschen Urologie ist der Einsatz der Laparoskopie in der Therapie urologischer Tumoren. Akzeptiert ist die laparoskopische radikale Tumornephrektomie, wohingegen Operationen wie die laparoskopische retropertioneale Lymphadenektomie, die laparoskopische Nierenteilresektion, die laparoskopische radikale Prostatektomie oder die Zystektomie mit Harnableitung teilweise als experimetell angesehen werden. Unsere bisherigen Erfahrungen mit diesen Eingriffen zeigen jedoch, dass die onkologischen Ergebnisse durch die Anwendung der Laparoskopie nicht kompromitiert werden. Auch die funktionellen Resultate nach laparoskopischer Prostatektomie oder Zystektomie mit Harnableitung sind überzeugend und mit denen nach konventionell offener Operation vergleichbar. Langzeitergebnisse bleiben jedoch abzuwarten. Die mit der Laparoskopie verbundene geringere Invasivität und das geringere perioperative Trauma führen zu einer weniger ausgeprägten postoperativen Immundepression. Möglicherweise führt das zu besseren Überlebensraten. Sollte sich diese Theorie bestätigen würde das den Stellenwert der Laparoskopie bei der Behandlung maligner Erkrankungen in der Urologie nachhaltig verändern. Nach wie vor sind der überwiegende Teil urologisch laparoskopischer Operationen mit einer steilen Lernkurve verbunden. Das unkritische Ausüben laparoskopischer Operationen führt zu einer unnötig hohen Komplikationsrate. Einem stufenweisen Ausbildungsprogramm mit schrittweiser Annäherung an technisch komplizierte Manöver muß grösste Aufmerksamkeit geschenkt werden. Mit der technischen Weiterentwicklung und der Integration von Manipulatoren und Robotern wird die Erlernbarkeit und Reproduzierbarkeit von komplexen und komplizierten laparoskopischen Eingriffen erleichtert. Dieser Entwicklung gehört die Zukunft in der minimal invasiven Chirurgie. / In the last 10 years, laparoscopic surgery became an accepted alternative in the treatment of urological diseases. In many situations such as undescended testes, simple nephrectomy, adrenalectomy, and pelvic lymph node dissection, the laparoscopic approach is often the standard of care. Advantages of the laparoscopic approach include reduced peri-operative morbidity, reduced post-operative pain, shorter hospital stay, shorter recovery time after hospital discharge, superior cosmesis, and faster return to work. In the field of urological malignancies, however, laparoscopy is controversial. Laparoscopic radical nephrectomy for renal cell carcinoma is an accepted oncologic procedure. However, laparoscopic approaches to procedures such as retroperitoneal lymph node dissection for testicular cancer, partial nephrectomy, radical prostatectomy and radical cystectomy with urinary diversion are still considered experimental. Our experiences so far with these kinds of procedures have shown that the use of the laparoscopic approach does not compromise the oncological results. Even the functional results after laparoscopic prostatectomy or urinary diversions are comparable with those after conventional open surgery. Long-term follow up, of course, is needed for any final judgements. The minimal invasiveness of the laparoscopic approach together with the reduced trauma of the surgery may translate into reduced postoperative depression of the immune system. This finding might have the potential to benefit the long-term survival of cancer patients. If this theory were confirmed, it would change the role of laparoscopy as a treatment option for urologic malignancies. Unfortunately, most urologic laparoscopic procedures are associated with a steep learning curve, and any haphazard or overzealous use of laparoscopic techniques will cause unnecessarily high complication rates. Therefore, a step-by-step learning program will be crucial for surgeons to become proficient with complicated urologic laparoscopic procedures. With technical advances, we can expect the introduction of manipulators and robots in the field that will improve the learning and execution of complex laparoscopic cases. Surgical robots may, indeed, become the future of minimally invasive surgery.

Aus vielen experimentellen und klinischen Studien geht hervor, dass ein Kapnoperitoneum zu charakteristischen Kreislaufveränderungen führt. Danach kommt es durch die Insufflation eines Gases in die Peritonealhöhle zu einer Erhöhung des intraperitonealen Druckes und zu einer Zunahme sowohl des peripheren venösen Druckes als auch des intrathorakalen Druckes. Insgesamt nimmt der Druckgradient zwischen diesen beiden Drücken ab. Als Folge wird der venöse Rückstrom zum Herzen reduziert, wodurch wiederum das Blutangebot für das Herz, welches die kardiale Vorlast wesentlich bestimmt, vermindert wird. Konsekutiv führt das letztlich zu einer Abnahme des Herzschlag- und des Herzminutenvolumens. Das verminderte Herzschlagvolumen wird von den arteriellen Barorezeptoren registriert, wodurch eine Stimulation des Sympathikus ausgelöst wird. Als Kompensationsmechanismus steigen die Herzfrequenz, in vielen Studien der mittlere arterielle Druck und der systemische Gefäßwiderstand. Als hormonelle Regulation wird Vasopressin ausgeschüttet. Der Anstieg dieser Drücke bedeutet eine Zunahme der kardialen Nachlast, was die kardiale Belastung weiter erhöht. Am gesunden Herzen wird die myokardiale Kontraktilität durch das Kapnoperitoneum nicht beeinflusst. An einem komplexen Tiermodell an 43 Läuferschweinen sollte überprüft werden, ob eine gezielte Erhöhung der kardialen Vorlast durch kolloidale Volumenersatzmittel, eine partielle Blockade der sympathikotonen Reaktionen durch den selektiven ß-Blocker Esmolol oder eine gezielte Senkung der kardialen Nachlast durch den Vasodilatator Nitroprussidnatrium geeignet sind, die negativen Auswirkungen des Kapnoperitoneums zu vermindern und die Herz-Kreislauffunktion bei laparoskopischen Operationen zu verbessern. Weil bekannt ist, dass die Körperposition eine wichtige Rolle bei der Ausprägung der physiologischen Veränderungen spielt, sollten die Tiere in Gruppen entweder in Horizontal-, Kopfhoch- oder Kopftieflage untersucht werden. Das ist von besonderer Bedeutung, weil viele laparoskopische Operationen zur Optimierung der Übersicht im Operationsgebiet eine Modifikation der Körperposition erfordern. Oberbaucheingriffe wie die Cholecystektomie werden vornehmlich in Kopfhochlage durchgeführt, während gynäkologische Laparoskopien in Kopftieflage stattfinden. Zur Vermeidung einer Hypovolämie erhielten die Tiere vor Beginn der Messungen 1l kristalloide Infusion. Die Untersuchungen ergaben, dass unter diesen Bedingungen ein Kapnoperitoneum von 14 mm Hg in Horizontallage ohne wesentliche Veränderungen der Herz- Kreislaufparameter toleriert wurde. Lediglich in Kopftief- und in Kopfhochlage war mit dem Intrathorakalen Blutvolumen ein wesentlicher Parameter der kardialen Vorlast vermindert und die Herzauswurfleistung mit dem Herzschlag- und Herzminutenvolumen reduziert, während die kardiale Nachlast mit dem peripheren systemischen Gefäßwiederstand erhöht war und die myokardiale Kontraktilität unverändert blieb. Damit kommt dem intrathorakalen Blutvolumen eine entscheidende Bedeutung zu. Eine Erhöhung des intrathorakalen Blutvolumens und damit der kardialen Vorlast verbesserte die Herzkreislauffunktion während des Kapnoperitoneums in allen Körperpositionen deutlich. Das äußerte sich in einer Steigerung des mittleren arteriellen Druckes, der im Normbereich blieb, einer Abnahme des systemischen Gefäßwiderstandes und einem Anstieg der Herzauswurfleistung. Die Esmolomedikation beeinträchtigte die Herzkreislauffunktion während des Kapnoperitoneums, indem sie die myokardiale Kontraktilität verschlechterte und die Herzfrequenz senkte mit der Folge, dass das Herzminutenvolumen abnahm. Die Senkung des mittleren arteriellen Druckes durch Nitroprussidnatrium verschlechterte ebenfalls in einigen Körperpositionen die myokardiale Kontraktilität und das Herzschlag- sowie das Herzminutenvolumen. Die beiden letztgenannten Konzepte können somit nicht generell zur Therapie hämodynamischer Effekte eines Kapnoperitoneums empfohlen werden. Entscheidende Bedeutung kommt einer Optimierung des intravasalen Volumens zu. Die Pfortader- und Nierendurchblutung wurden in diesem Modell durch das Kapnoperitoneum in keiner Körperposition relevant beeinträchtigt. Auch in der Literatur findet sich kein Hinweis auf eine durch ein Kapnoperitoneum induzierte dauerhafte Funktionsstörung von Leber oder Niere. / A capnoperitoneum increases peripheral venous resistance as well as intrathoracic pressure thus compromising venous blood return to the heart which is determinded by the pressure gradient between peripheral and central venous pressure. With a decreased cardiac preload cardiac stroke volume and cardiac output are reduced. The reduction in stroke volume induces changes in the carotidal sinus activity followed by an increased sympathetic nerve activity. These effects were often expressed by an increased heart rate, mean arterial pressure, or peripheral systemic resistance. As a hormonal reaction to theses changes vasopressin release increases further elevating cardiac afterload. Changes of cardiac contractility were not described during capnoperitoneum. In a procine trial using 43 piglets the questions should be answered if an increase of cardiac preload by infusion of colloidal fluids, a partial blockade of sympathetic receptors by esmolol, or a reduction of the cardiac afterload by infusion of the vasodilatator nitroprussidnatrium can minimize hemodynamic changes during capnoperitoneum. Because the body position is known to influence hemodynamic parameters and has to be varied during laparoscopic procedures pigs were divided into three groups representing head-up, head-down, and supine position. To avoid hypovolemia before the measurements the animals received 1L cristal solutions intravenously before the beginning of the experiment. In supine position the animals tolerated a capnoperitoneum of 14 mm Hg without changes of hemodynamic parameters. In head-up as well as in head-down position the intrathoracic blood volume decraesed followed by a reduction of stroke volume and cardiac output and an increase of peripheral systemic resistance. Cardiac contractility remained unchanged during all positions. The increase of intrathoracic blood volume by colloidal infusion improved hemodynamic parameters during all body positions. Mean arterial pressure increasesd to normal ranges while the peripheral systemic resistance decreased and the cardiac output increased. The medication of esmolol had negative effects on hemodynamic function during capnoperitoneum because heart rate and myocardial contractility as well as cardiac output decreased. Medication of Nitroprussidnatrium during capnoperitoneum was also shown to partly compromise myocardial contractility and stroke volume as well as cardiac output so that both therapeutical concepts, medication of esmolol and nitroprussidnatrium failed to improve hemodynamic function during capnoperitoneum. Optimizing intravascular volume and cardiac preload is of major importance to avoid hemodynamic side effects of capnoperitoneum. The perfusion of the portal vein as well as the renal artery were not influenced in none position during a capnoperitoneum of 14 mm Hg in this trial. However, the review of the literature did not indicate any prolonged influences on hepatic or renal function induced by capnoperitoneum of pressures around 14 mm Hg.

Depuis 25 ans, la voie d’abord coelioscopique a pris une place importante dans laprise en charge des cancers pelviens, en particulier gynécologique. Cette voie miniinvasive est utilisée pour des procédures diagnostiques, de stadifications outhérapeutiques.Les évolutions technologiques et instrumentales ont permis d’étendre sesapplications à des indications réservées à la laparotomie.Si à la vue des données de la littérature la coelioscopie est devenue la voie d’abord àrecommander dans la prise en charge des cancers du col utérin et de l’endomètre,elle doit faire face à l’arrivée de l’assistance robotisée.Le robot chirurgical Da Vinci se développe depuis 10 ans et ses applications se sontmultipliées. La chirurgie gynécologique et oncologique constitue un éventaild’indications intéressantes pour cette technologie, surtout en cancérologie. De plusen dehors des avantages évidents qu’offre le robot Da Vinci pour le chirurgien, ilsemble que certains paramètres per opératoires soient améliorés, la qualité desprélèvements et la morbidité en particulier.A travers une revue de la littérature et l’exposé des travaux menés, nous démontronsl’applicabilité et l’intérêt potentiel de cette nouvelle approche coelioscopique dans laprise en charge des cancers gynécologiques.Cependant, l’impact médico économique de cette technique ainsi que le gain enterme de morbidité pour nos patientes, par rapport à la voie coelioscopiqueconventionnelle, doivent être précisés par les essais que nous avons initiés et quisont actuellement en cours. / Since 25 years, laparoscopic approach has gained an increasing role in cancertreatment, especially of colorectal - and gynecological cancers. The laparoscopicapproach is used for staging and exploratory purposes, as well as for therapeuticpurposes.Recent developments in surgical instruments and techniques allowed to extend theindication of laparoscopy to cases that were formerly reserved for open surgery.As the laparoscopic approach has become the Gold Standard, especially for uteruscancer (cervix and endometrial), the domain of robot-assisted surgery deserves ourattention.The robotic surgical system named « DaVinci » has undergone further developmentsand the indications for this system have been multiplied. The use in gynecologyseems to be an ideal indication for this surgical technique, especially for cancertreatment. Moreover, it might be postulated that the DaVinci surgical system canmodify several peri operative factors, which might result in less morbidity and earlierrecovery from surgery.Though a literature review and our publications we demonstrate the feasibility of thistechnique and its potential place in gynecologic cancers management.However, before this innovative but expensive technique is generally used andaccessible, it is necessary to thoroughly evaluate its surgical quality, its relatedcancer outcome, its economic impact and its related patients’ quality of life.

Introduction : La néphro-urétérectomie radicale (NUR) représente le traitement primaire pour les patients atteints d’une tumeur des voies excrétrices supérieures (TVES) non métastatique. Une approche ouverte ou laparoscopique peut être considérée. Malgré la présence de plusieurs études comparant les résultats périopératoires et oncologiques entre ces deux approches, aucunes études se basent sur une cohorte populationnelle. Objectif : Notre but est d’évaluer la morbidité péri-opératoire entre la NUR ouverte et laparoscopique en utilisant une cohorte populationnelle. Méthode : Nous avons utilisé la base de donnée Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) pour identifier tous les patients atteints d’une TVES non métastatique, traités par NUR ouverte ou laparoscopique, entre 1998 et 2009. Au total, 7401 (90,8%) et 754 (9,2%) patients ont subi une NUR ouverte et laparoscopique, respectivement. Dans le but de contrôler les différences inhérentes entre les deux groupes, nous avons utilisé une analyse par appariement sur les scores de propension. Ainsi, 3016 (80%) patients avec NUR ouverte étaient appariés à 754 (20%) patients avec NUR laparoscopique. Intervention : Tous les patients ont subi une NUR. Mesures : Les taux de complications intra-opératoires et post-opératoires, de transfusions sanguines, d’hospitalisation prolongée et de mortalité intrahospitalière ont été mesurés. Des analyses de régression logistique on été utilisées pour notre cohorte, après appariement sur les scores de propension. Résultats et Limitations : Pour les patients traités par approche ouverte vs. laparoscopique, les taux suivants furent calculés : transfusions sanguines : 15 vs. 10% (p<0,001); complications intra-opératoires : 4,7 vs. 2,1% (p=0,002); complications post-opératoires : 17 vs. 15% (p=0,24); durée d’hospitalisation prolongée (≥ 5 jours) : 47 vs. 28% (p<0,001); mortalité intra-hospitalière 1,3 vs. 0,7% (p=0,12). Sur les analyses par régression logistique, les patients ayant été traités par NUR laparoscopique avaient moins de chance de recevoir une transfusion sanguine (odds ratio [OR]: 0,6, p<0,001), de subir une complication intra-opératoire (OR: 0,4, p=0,002), et d’avoir une durée prolongée d’hospitalisation (OR: 0,4, p<0,001). Globalement les taux de complications postopératoires étaient équivalents. Toutefois, l’approche laparoscopique était associée à moins de complications pulmonaires (OR: 0,4, p=0,007). Cette étude est limitée par sa nature rétrospective. Conclusion: Après ajustement de potentiels biais de sélection, la NUR par approche laparoscopique est associée à moins de complications intraopératoires et péri-opératoires comparée à la NUR par approche ouverte. / Background: Nephroureterectomy represents the primary management for patients with non-metastatic upper tract urothelial carcinoma (UTUC). Either an open (ONU) or laparoscopic (LNU) nephroureterectomy may be considered. Despite the presence of several reports comparing perioperative and cancer control outcomes between the two approaches, no reports relied on a population-based cohort. Objectives: To examine intraoperative and postoperative morbidity of ONU and LNU in a population-based cohort. Design, setting, and participants: We relied on the Nationwide Inpatient Sample (NIS) to identify patients with non-metastatic UTUC treated with ONU or LNU between years 1998 and 2009. Overall, 7401 (90.8%) and 754 (9.2%) patients underwent ONU and LNU, respectively. To adjust for potential baseline differences between the two groups, propensity-based matching was performed. This resulted in 3016 (80%) ONU patients matched to 754 (20%) LNU patients. Intervention: All patients underwent NU. Measurements: The rates of intraoperative and postoperative complications, blood transfusions, prolonged length of stay (pLOS), and in-hospital mortality were assessed for both procedures. Multivariable logistic regression analyses were performed within the post propensity-matched cohort. Results and limitations: For ONU vs. LNU respectively, the following rates were recorded: blood transfusions: 15 vs. 10% (P<0.001); intraoperative complications: 4.7 vs. 2.1% (P=0.002); postoperative complications: 17 vs. 15% (P=0.24); pLOS (≥5 days): 47 vs. 28% (P<0.001); in-hospital mortality: 1.3 vs. 0.7% (P=0.12). In multivariable logistic regression analyses, LNU patients were less likely to receive a blood transfusion (odds ratio [OR]: 0.6, P<0.001), to experience any intraoperative complications (OR: 0.4, P=0.002), and to have a pLOS (OR: 0.4, P<0.001). Overall postoperative complications were equivalent. However, LNU patients had fewer respiratory complications (OR: 0.4, P=0.007). This study is limited by its retrospective nature. Conclusions: After adjustment for potential selection biases, LNU is associated with fewer adverse intraoperative and perioperative outcomes than ONU.

La chimiothérapie systémique par voie intraveineuse, essentiellement réservée aux cancers avancés, n'est pas ciblée sur la tumeur, il est très difficile d’atteindre des niveaux thérapeutiques en intra tumoral, et ses effets secondaires et sa toxicité sont doses-limitantes.La chimiothérapie localisée pourrait permettre :1) la stabilisation des molécules médicamenteuses incorporées une seule administration médicamenteuse,2) une libération prolongée et contrôlée du médicament pour assurer une diffusion adéquate et l'absorption par les cellules cancéreuses sur plusieurs cycles de division cellulaire 3) le chargement de molécules de chimiothérapie insolubles dans l’eau, 4) l’apport direct au site de la maladie, 6) des effets secondaires diminués en évitant la circulation systémique,7) des résections chirurgicales moindres en traitant les marges de la tumeur. Nous nous sommes plus particulièrement intéressés aux cancers gynécologiques. Nous avons étudié les effets pharmacologiques et cliniques de microsphères chargées en doxorubicine (Doxo) sur un modèle de carcinose péritonéale et de tumeur de glande mammaire, et étudié le profil de diffusion ganglionnaire de divers implants non chargés. 12 jours après injection laparoscopique de tumeurs VX2 sur les ligaments larges droits et gauches de lapines WNZ 12 une injection laparoscopique de 0,5 ml de microsphères chargées ou non de Doxo (respectivement DM, groupe 1 et BM, groupe 2) a été réalisée de façon aléatoire d’un côté ou de l’autre, en sous péritonéal, au site tumoral. 7 jours après les ligaments larges, l’utérus, les ovaires, les orifices de trocarts, les intestins, la vessie, le foie et les poumons ont été examinés en macroscopie et microscopie. Le volume tumoral était plus faible dans le groupe 1 (3,6 ± 3,2 cm) par rapport au groupe 2 (8,9 ± 5,4 cm) (MW, p = 0,0179). La nécrose a été observée autour de toutes les DM, sans nécrose autour des BM. La concentration de Doxo était de 2,1 ± 2,7 uM aux limites tumorales, au-dessus du niveau thérapeutique de 1,0 uM. Sur un autre modèle, 19 jours après injection locale de suspensions tumorales de VX2 sur la deuxième glande mammaire de lapines WNZ chaque glande a été aléatoirement traitée par injection locale de 0,5 ml de microsphères chargées ou non de Doxo (HSDOXO, Groupe1, et HS, groupe 2).Pour les tumeurs de moins de 5 cm3 ou 2 cm de diamètre avant traitement, le volume final était plus faible dans le groupe 1 par rapport à groupe2 (respectivement p<0.008 et p<0.3, MW)et la croissance tumorale a été diminuée après injection de HSDOXO par rapport à HS. En microscopie une nécrose tissulaire a été observée autour des HSDOXO en extratumoral, sans nécrose autour des HS.Nous avons enfin étudié la diffusion de particules de diverses tailles, non chargées, au ganglion sentinelle d’une tumeur de glande mammaire . Les animaux ont été répartis en trois groupes de trois, chacun d'eux recevant des particules de 100 nM, 1 uM ou 10 uM. Cinq jours après traitement, l'intensité de fluorescence a été évaluée par lampe UV. Le ganglion sentinelle a été disséqué selon la technique du bleu, avant curage complet. Les premiers résultats montrent la capture de particules de 1 et 100µm par les ganglions tumoraux mais aussi dans les ganglions sains, ce qui permettrait d’envisager un traitement ganglionnaire préventif et curatif.De plus en plus de tumeurs seront décelées au stade local. Par ailleurs l'identification des phénotypes génomiques permettra un traitement personnalisé « à la carte ». On pourrait envisager un dispositif de délivrance programmable traitant tous les aspects de la maladie, de l'inhibition de la croissance tumorale et de l'angiogenèse à la promotion de la cicatrisation des tissus normaux. / Systemic chemotherapy is mainly reserved for advanced cancers, is not targeted to the tumor, it is very difficult to achieve intratumoral therapeutic levels and its side effects and toxicity are dose-limiting.Local chemotherapy may have several advantages:1) stabilization of embedded drug molecules and preservation of anticancer activity,2) controlled and prolonged drug release to ensure adequate diffusion and uptake into cancer cells over many cycles of tumor cell division, 3) loading and release of water-insoluble chemotherapeutics, 4) direct delivery to the site of disease, 5) one-time administration of the drug, 6) diminished side effects due to the avoidance of systemic circulation of chemotherapeutic drugs.We were particularly interested in gynecological cancers. We studied the pharmacological and clinical effects of doxorubicin-loaded microspheres (Doxo) in a model of peritoneal carcinomatosis,a model of mammary gland tumor, and studied the diffusion profile of various micro and nanoparticles in tumoral and non tumoral lymph nodes.12 days after laparoscopic injection of VX2 tumors on the right and left broad ligament of WNZ rabbits laparoscopic injection of 0.5 ml of microspheres loaded or not with Doxo (DM or Group 1, BM Group 2 respectively) was conducted randomly to one side or another, at the sub peritoneal tumor site. 7 days after the broad ligaments, uterus, ovaries, trocars, bowels, bladder, liver and lungs were examined macroscopically and microscopically. The tumor volume was lower in group 1 (3.6 ± 3.2 cm) compared with group 2 (8.9 ± 5.4 cm) (MW, p = 0.0179). Necrosis was observed around all DM without necrosis around the BM. Doxo concentration was 2.1 ± 2.7 µM at the tumor margins, above the therapeutic level of 1.0 uM.On another model, 19 days after local injection of VX2 tumor suspensions in the second mammary gland of WNZ rabbits each gland was randomly treated by local injection of 0.5 ml of microspheres loaded or not with Doxo (HSDOXO, Group1, and HS Group 2).For tumors less than 5 cm3 or 2 cm in diameter before treatment, the final volume was lower in group 1 compared to Group 2 (p <0.008 and p <0.3, MW) and tumor growth was reduced after HSDOXO injection compared to HS. Microscopic tissue necrosis was observed around extratumoral HSDOXO without necrosis around the HS.We finally studied the diffusion of unloaded particles of various sizes on the lymph nodes of a mammary gland tumor. The animals were divided into three groups of three, each receiving particles of 100 nm, 1 µm or 10 µm. Five days after treatment, the fluorescence intensity was measured by UV lamp. The sentinel lymph node was dissected according to the technique of blue dye.The first results show the capture of 1 μm and 100μm particles by the tumoral and non tumoral lymph nodes, which would consider a preventive and curative treatment of the nodes.Since more and more tumors are detected at the local stage and with the identification of genomic phenotypes, a personalized local chemotherapy could be the next step of cancer therapy. One could imagine a programmable controlled drug delivery device dealing with all aspects of the disease, inhibition of tumor growth and angiogenesis, while promoting the healing of normal tissues.

Esta pesquisa avaliou a segurança microbiológica da esterilização a vapor do instrumental laparoscópico reutilizável montado. Foram selecionados dois tipos de instrumental laparoscópico reutilizável: trocarte e pinça de dissecção de 5mm. Considerando a eficácia da limpeza como pré-requisito essencial para o processo de esterilização, a PRIMEIRA ETAPA da pesquisa, avaliou 66 instrumentos laparoscópicos, sendo 33 pinças e 33trocartes, submetidos a diferentes métodos de limpeza, avaliando como desfecho os resíduos orgânicos de proteína, hemoglobina e carboidrato, após contaminação intencional com sangue de placenta humana. Os métodos de limpeza testados foram: (1) limpeza manual com enxágue em água potável; (2) limpeza manual com enxágue em água potável, seguida de limpeza ultrassônica sem enxágue; (3) limpeza manual com enxágue em água potável, seguida de limpeza ultrassônica com enxágue em água potável e (4) limpeza manual com enxágue em água potável, seguida de limpeza ultrassônica com enxágue em água potável e último enxágue em água destilada esterilizada. Os experimentos foram acompanhados pelos grupos controle Positivo (sem limpeza) e Negativo, composto por instrumental laparoscópico novos sem contaminação intencional, avaliados após os procedimentos de limpeza (1) e (4). Para avaliação dos resíduos orgânicos, utilizou-se o kit Quantipro BCA para dosagem de proteínas, TMB One para hemoglobina, fenol 5% e ácido sulfúrico para carboidrato, todos com leitura por espectrofotometria. O grupo controle Positivo evidenciou níveis médios de 332µg/cm2 proteína, 30µg/cm2 carboidrato e 417µg/cm2 hemoglobina. Conforme esperado, o método de limpeza (4) apresentou desempenho superior quando comparado com o método (1), reduzindo 92% a mais de µg/proteína/pinça e 60% a mais de µg/carboidrato/pinça e por trocarte, embora esta superioridade não tenha sido observada de uma forma uniforme em todo o experimento. No grupo controle Negativo, os níveis máximos de proteína detectados foram 1,70µg/cm2 e de carboidrato de 1,07µg/cm2, não sendo detectada hemoglobina. A SEGUNDA ETAPA, avaliou a esterilização do instrumental laparoscópico reutilizável montado com contaminação desafio de três vezes 106 esporos Geobacillus stearothermophillus ATCC 7953, impregnados em suporte de papel filtro extraídos do indicador biológico comercialmente disponível para monitoramento da autoclavação. Os experimentos microbiológicos foram acompanhados dos grupos controle Positivo (suporte do indicador biológico não submetido à esterilização) e controle Negativo (instrumentos laparoscópicos esterilizados desmontados com contaminação desafio). Como grupo Experimental, foram analisados 370 instrumentos laparoscópicos esterilizados montados, sendo 185 pinças e 185 trocartes. Três suportes de papel impregnados com os esporos foram introduzidos no interior de cada instrumento laparoscópico, precedidos de limpeza tipo (4), embalados em papel grau cirúrgico e submetidos à esterilização a vapor saturado sob pressão (134oC por 5 minutos). Com técnica asséptica, cada suporte de papel foi inoculado em meio de cultura de Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB), incubado a 56oC por 21 dias. Não sendo observado crescimento, as amostras foram submetidas a um choque térmico a 80oC, por 20 minutos, para estimular a germinação, com reincubação por mais 72 horas. Não houve crescimento microbiano algum nas amostras do grupo Experimental. Os resultados dos grupos controles foram satisfatórios. O controle Positivo confirmou o desafio imposto aos experimentos e o controle Negativo apresentou resultados esperados de ausência de crescimento. Este estudo forneceu fortes evidências científicas para os Centros de Material e Esterilização sustentarem a segurança microbiológica da prática de esterilização do instrumental laparoscópico montado / This study evaluated the microbiological safety of steam sterilization, the reusable laparoscopic instrument assembled. We selected two types of reusable laparoscopic instrument: trocar and dissecting forceps 5mm. Considering the efficacy of cleaning as an essential prerequisite for the sterilization process, the FIRST STEP evaluated 66 laparoscopic instruments, 33 trocars and 33 dissecting forceps, subjected to different cleaning methods evaluating outcome as organic waste protein, hemoglobin and carbohydrate after intentional contamination with blood from human placenta. Cleaning methods were tested: (1) manual cleaning rinse with potable water, (2) manual cleaning with rinsing in clean water, then cleaning ultrasonic without rinsing, (3) manual cleaning with rinsing in clean water, then cleaning ultrasonic rinse with potable water and (4) manual cleaning rinse with potable water, followed by ultrasonic cleaning with potable water rinse and final rinse in sterile distilled water. The experiments were accompanied by positive control groups (without cleaning) and negative, composed of laparoscopic instruments again without intentional contamination, assessed after the cleaning procedures (1) and (4). For evaluation of organic waste is used Quantipro BCA kit for the determination of protein, TMB One to hemoglobin, 5% phenol and sulfuric acid of carbohydrate with any read by spectrophotometry. The positive control group showed average levels of 332µg/cm2 protein, carbohydrate 30µg/cm2 and 417µg/cm2 hemoglobin. As expected, the cleaning method (4) superior performance when compared with the method (1), reducing 92% more µg/protein/forceps and more than 60% µg/carbohydrate/forceps and trocar, although this superiority has not been observed in a uniform manner throughout the experiment. In the negative control group maximum levels of protein detected were 1.70 µg/cm2 and 1.07 µg/cm2carbohydrate was not detected hemoglobin. The SECOND STEP evaluated the sterilization of reusable laparoscopic instruments assembled with contamination challenge 3 times 10 Geobacillusstearothermophillus spores ATCC 7953, impregnated strips filter paper extracted from commercially available biological indicator for monitoring steam sterilization. The experiments were accompanied microbiological positive control groups (biological indicator spore strips non-sterile) and negative (laparoscopic instruments sterilized contamination disassembled challenge). As experimental group were analyzed 370 laparoscopic instruments sterilized assembled, 185 dissecting forceps and 185 trocars. Three spore strips of paper impregnated were introduced in laparoscopic instrument within each preceded by cleaning type (4), packed in surgical paper and subjected to saturated steam sterilization under pressure (134oC for 5 minutes). With aseptic technique, each paper spore strip was inoculated into culture medium Tryptic Soy Broth (TSB) and incubated at 56oC for 21 days. No growth was observed, they were subjected to heat shock at 80oC for 20 minutes to stimulate germination, with more reincubation for 72 hours. There was no microbial growth in some samples of the experimental group. The results of the control groups were satisfactory. The Positive Control confirmed the challenge posed to experiments and the negative control presented results expected from the absence of growth. This study provides strong scientific evidence for the Centers for Material and Sterilization sustain the microbiological safety of the practice of sterilization of laparoscopic instruments assembled.

Introdução: No ano de 2007, foram diagnosticados 190 casos de infecção hospitalar por Micobactéria de Crescimento Rápido (MCR) em pacientes submetidos a cirurgias videoassistidas em hospitais da região metropolitana de Vitória/ES. Os pacientes foram acompanhados na unidade de referência do Hospital Universitário Cassiano Antonio de Moraes da Universidade Federal do Espírito Santo (HUCAM/UFES), onde foi instituído tratamento específico e estabelecida investigação por métodos de imagens, sobretudo Tomografia Computadorizada (TC), para identificação do número, extensão e localização das lesões. Objetivo: Identificar a distribuição e a frequência dos achados de TC em pacientes com diagnóstico clínico e epidemiológico de infecção hospitalar por MCR após cirurgias laparoscópicas. Métodos: Foi conduzido um estudo descritivo utilizando os dados de prontuários da unidade de referência do HUCAM/UFES e as imagens das tomografias computadorizadas realizadas. Os exames foram analisados, em consenso, por dois radiologistas, que identificaram, separadamente, o comprometimento de pele/subcutâneo, de planos musculofasciais da parede abdominal e do intraperitoneal. Os padrões de comprometimento tabulados foram: densificações, coleções, nódulos maiores ou iguais a 1,0 cm (nódulos), nódulos menores que 1,0 cm (nódulos pequenos), nódulos com pseudocavitação e nódulos pequenos com pseudocavitação. Resultados: 26 pacientes atendiam aos critérios preestabelecidos. As infecções foram relacionadas a: nove cirurgias bariátricas, uma cirurgia bariátrica com colecistectomia, sete colecistectomias, uma colecistectomia somada à correção de hérnia inguinal com colocação de tela, três cirurgias para correção de refluxo gastroesofágico (CRGE), três laparoscopias diagnósticas, uma salpingectomia e uma apendicectomia.O menor intervalo de tempo entre a cirurgia e o exame de tomografia computadorizada foi de 8 dias, o maior, 351 dias, com média de 112 dias e mediana de 83. Todos os pacientes apresentaram algum achado de imagem no subcutâneo, sendo que seis pacientes tiveram comprometimento exclusivo na pele/subcutâneo, e os demais apresentaram comprometimento concomitante de planos musculofasciais e/ou intraperitoneal. Os achados no subcutâneo foram: densificação (88,4%), nódulo pequeno (61,5%), nódulo pequeno pseudocavitado (23,0%), nódulo (38,4%), nódulo pseudocavitado (15,3%) e coleção (26,9%); os achados nos planos musculofasciais foram: densificação (61,5%), nódulo pseudocavitado (3,8%) e coleção (15,3%); e os achados intraperitoneais foram: densificação (46,1%), nódulo pequeno (42,3%), nódulo (15,3%) e coleção (11,5%). Nenhum dos cinco pacientes que realizaram a biópsia subcutânea anteriormente à TC apresentou nódulo subcutâneo maior do que 1,0 cm; comparativamente, dentre aqueles que realizaram a biópsia após a TC, constatou-se que 10 pacientes (47,6%) apresentaram nódulos subcutâneos. A comparação entre os 16 pacientes com intervalo de tempo entre cirurgia e TC menor do que 3 meses e os 10 pacientes com intervalo maior do que 3 meses demonstrou que: os pacientes com menor intervalo de tempo apresentavam maior porcentagem de densificações no subcutâneo (100%), nos planos musculofasciais (81,2%) e intraperitoneais (70,0%); já no grupo com maior intervalo, as porcentagens foram de 66,6%, 30,0% e 10,0%, respectivamente. Conclusão: os achados tomográficos, em ordem decrescente de frequência, foram: a) no subcutâneo: densificação, nódulo pequeno, nódulo, nódulo pequeno pseudocavitado, nódulo pseudocavitado e coleção; b) nos planos musculofasciais: densificação, coleção e nódulo pseudocavitado; e c) intraperitoneal: densificação, nódulo pequeno, nódulo e coleção / Introduction: In 2007, 190 cases of hospital-acquired infection due to rapidly growing mycobacterial (RGM) were diagnosed in patients undergoing video-assisted surgery in the hospitals of the metropolitan region of Vitória, ES (Brazil). The patients were followed at the referral unit of the University Hospital Cassiano Antonio de Moraes of the Federal University of Espírito Santo (HUCAM), where specific treatment was instituted and research by imaging methods - particularly computed tomography (CT) - was initiated to identify the number, extent, and location of the lesions. Objective: To identify the distribution and frequency of CT findings in patients with clinical and epidemiological diagnosis of hospital-acquired RGM infection after laparoscopic surgery. Method: A descriptive study was conducted using medical records data from the referral unit of the HUCAM and the computed tomography (CT) images. The scans were analyzed by two radiologists, in consensus, who individually identified compromised skin/subcutaneous areas, muscle-fascial planes of the abdominal wall and intraperitoneal regions. The involvement patterns were tabulated as: densification, collections, nodules >= 1.0 cm (nodules), nodules < 1.0 cm (small nodules), pseudocavitated nodules, and small pseudocavitated nodules. Results: Twenty-six patients met the established criteria. The infections were related to 9 bariatric surgeries, 1 bariatric surgery with cholecystectomy, 7 cholecystectomies, 1 cholecystectomy along with inguinal hernia correction with screen placement, 3 surgeries for correction of gastroesophageal reflux, 3 diagnostic laparoscopies, 1 salpingectomy, and 1 appendectomy. The shortest time interval between surgery and CT examination was 8 days and the longest interval was 351 days, with a mean of 112 days and a median of 83 days. All patients presented subcutaneous involvement on the CT image; 6 patients had exclusive impairment in the skin/subcutaneous tissue whereas the others had concomitant impairment in musculo-fascial and/or intraperitoneal planes. The subcutaneous findings were: densification (88.4%), small nodules (61.5%), small pseudocavitated nodules (23.0%), nodules (38.4%), pseudocavitated nodules (15.3%), and collections (26.9%). The findings in the musculo-fascial planes were: densification (61.5%), pseudocavitated nodules (3.8%), and collections (15.3%). The intraperitoneal findings were: densification (46.1%), small nodules (42.3%), nodules (15.3%) and collections (11,5%). None of the 5 patients who underwent biopsy before CT showed subcutaneous nodules larger than 1.0 cm; in contrast, of those who underwent biopsy after CT, 10 patients (47.6%) had subcutaneous nodules. A comparison between the 16 patients with a time interval of less than 3 months between surgery and CT, and the 10 patients with an interval of more than 3 months showed that patients with a shorter time interval had a higher percentage of subcutaneous densification (100%), musculo-fascial plane densification (81.2%), and intraperitoneal densification (70.0%); for those with a longer interval, the percentages were 66.6%, 30.0%, and 10.0%, respectively. Conclusion: the subcutaneous CT findings in descending order of frequency were: densification, small nodules, nodules, small pseudocavitated nodules, pseudocavitated nodules, and collections. The musculo-fascial plane CT findings were: densification, collections, and pseudocavitated nodules. The intraperitoneal CT findings were: densification, small nodule, nodules and collections

L'intégration de systèmes robotiques au sein du bloc opératoire a modifié le déroulement de certaines interventions, laissant ainsi place à des pratiques favorisant le bénéfice médical rendu au patient en dépit des aspects conventionnels. Dans ce cadre, de récentes études de la Haute Autorité de Santé ont mis en avant les effets indésirables graves intervenant au cours des procédures chirurgicales robotisées. Ces erreurs, majoritairement dues aux compétences techniques du praticien, remettent ainsi en cause la formation et les techniques d'apprentissage pour la chirurgie robotisée. Bien que l'utilisation abondante de simulateurs facilite cet apprentissage au travers différents types d'entraînement, le retour fourni à l'opérateur reste succinct et ne lui permet pas de progresser dans de bonnes conditions. De ce fait, nous souhaitons améliorer les conditions d'entraînement en chirurgie laparoscopique robotisée. Les objectifs de cette thèse sont doubles. En premier lieu, ils visent le développement d'une méthode pour la segmentation et la reconnaissance des gestes chirurgicaux durant l'entraînement en se basant sur une approche non-supervisée. Utilisant les données cinématiques des instruments chirurgicaux, nous sommes capables de reconnaître les gestes réalisés par l'opérateur à hauteur de 82%. Cette méthode est alors une première étape pour l'évaluation de compétences basée sur la gestuelle et non sur l'ensemble de la tâche d'entraînement. D'autre part, nous souhaitons rendre l'entraînement en chirurgie robotisée plus accessible et moins coûteux. De ce fait, nous avons également étudié l'utilisation d'une nouvelle interface homme-machine sans contact pour la commande des robots chirurgicaux. Dans ces travaux, cette interface a été couplée au Raven-II, un robot de téléopération dédié à la recherche en robotique chirurgicale. Nous avons alors évalué les performances du système au travers différentes études, concluant ainsi à la possibilité de téléopérer un robot chirurgical avec ce type de dispositif. Il est donc envisageable d'utiliser ce type d'interface pour l'entraînement sur simulateur afin de réduire le coût de la formation, mais également d'améliorer l'accès et l'acquisition des compétences techniques spécifiques à la chirurgie robotisée. / Integration of robotic systems in the operating room changed the way that surgeries are performed. It modifies practices to improve medical benefits for the patient but also brought non-traditional aspects that can lead to serious undesirable effects. Recent studies from the French authorities for hygiene and medical care highlight that these undesirable effects mainly come from the surgeon's technical skills, which question surgical robotic training and teaching. To overcome this issue, surgical simulators help to train practitioner through different training tasks and provide feedback to the operator. However the feedback is partial and do not help the surgeon to understand gestural mistakes. Thus, we want to improve the surgical robotic training conditions. The objective of this work is twofold. First, we developed a new method for segmentation and recognition of surgical gestures during training sessions based on an unsupervised approach. From surgical tools kinematic data, we are able to achieve gesture recognition at 82%. This method is a first step to evaluate technical skills based on gestures and not on the global execution of the task as it is done nowadays. The second objective is to provide easier access to surgical training and make it cheaper. To do so, we studied a new contactless human-machine interface to control surgical robots. In this work, the interface is plugged to a Raven-II robot dedicated to surgical robotics research. Then, we evaluated performance of such system through multiple studies, concluding that this interface can be used to control surgical robots. In the end, one can consider to use this contactless interface for surgical training with a simulator. It can reduce the training cost and also improve the access for novice surgeons to technical skills training dedicated to surgical robotics.