This thesis develops a pragmatic theory of metaphors and slurs. In the pragmatic literature, theorists mostly hold the view that the framework developed by Grice is only applicable to the sentence-level pragmatic phenomena, whereas the subsentential pragmatic phenomena require a different approach. In this thesis, I argue against this view and claim that the Gricean framework, after some plausible revisions, can explain subsentential pragmatic phenomena, such as metaphors and slurs. In the first chapter, I introduce three basic theses I will defend and give an outline of the argument I will develop. The second chapter discusses three claims on metaphor that are widely discussed in the literature. There I state my aim to present a theory of metaphor which can accommodate these three claims. Chapter 3 introduces the notion of "phrasal implicature", which will be used to explain phrase-level pragmatic phenomena with a Gricean approach. In Chapter 4, I present my theory of metaphor, which I call "phrasal implicature theory of metaphor" and discuss certain aspects of the theory. The notion of phrasal implicature enables a new conception of what-is-said and a different approach to the semantics-pragmatics distinction. Chapter 5 looks into these issues. In Chapter 6, I compare my theory of metaphor with three other theories. Finally, in Chapter 7, I develop a phrasal implicature theory of slurs, which I argue outperforms its rivals in explaining various uses of slurs.

In the attempt to enrich classical literary criticism with modern theoretical perspectives, this thesis formulates an interdisciplinary methodological approach to the study of animal metaphors in the tragic depiction of female avengers. Philological and linguistic commentaries on the tragic passages where animals metaphorically occur are not sufficient to determine the effect that Attic dramatists would have provoked in the fifth-century Athenian audience. The thesis identifies the dramatic techniques that Aeschylus, Sophocles and Euripides deploy to depict vengeful heroines in animal terms, by combining gender studies of the classical world, classical studies of animals and posthumanism. It rejects the anthropocentric and anthropomorphic views of previous classical scholars who have interpreted the animal-woman metaphor in revenge plots as a tragic expression of non-humanity. It argues instead that animal imagery was considered particularly effective to express the human contradictions of female vengeance in the theatre of Dionysus. The thesis investigates the metaphorical employment of the nightingale, the lioness and the snake in the tragic characterisation of women who claim compensation for the injuries suffered within and against their household. Chapter 1 is focused on the image of the nightingale in comparison with tragic heroines, who perform ritual lamentation to incite vengeance. Chapter 2 explores the lioness metaphor in the representation of tragic heroines, who through strength and protectiveness commit vengeance. Chapter 3 examines the metaphorical use of the snake in association with tragic heroines, who plan and inflict vengeance by deceit. Through the reconstruction of the metaphorical metamorphoses enacted by vengeful women into nightingales, lionesses and snakes, the thesis demonstrates that Attic dramatists would have provoked a tragic effect of pathos. Employed as a Dionysiac tool, animal imagery reveals the tragic humanity of avenging heroines whose voice, agency and deception cause nothing but suffering to their family, and inevitably to themselves.

Det finns mycket forskning inom ledarskap då det är ett relevant fenomen att studera. Det finns dock inte mycket forskning kring hur ledarskap kommer till uttryck i e- handelsföretag. Vi ville, genom en kvalitativ studie, öka vår förståelse för hur ledarskap kommer till uttryck i e-handelsföretag. Detta gjorde vi genom användningen av ledarskapsmetaforer som ett tolkningsverktyg för att få en ökad förståelse för det komplexa fenomenet. Vi utförde fyra semistrukturerade intervjuer där ledare på tre e- handelsföretag fick berätta om sina erfarenheter, tolkningar och synsätt på ledarskap. Vi upptäckte att samtliga ledare hade en likartad syn på vilka egenskaper som är viktiga och att ledarskap kommer till uttryck på ett snarlikt sätt i de olika företagen. Vi fann även att våra intervjupersoners ledarskap kan tolkas med hjälp av två nya metaforer som uppkom under studiens gång.

Constructions of masculinity and femininity can be reinforced through written and spoken language, creating stereotypes and inequality between genders. Gender representations in music lyrics have been studied for various genres, but the country music genre has been somewhat underrepresented. Considering the fact that country is seen as the authentic music genre and culture of the US, it is relevant to study how gender is represented in relation to society. The aim of this study is to investigate how masculinity and femininity is represented in 15 modern country songs from the last decade retrieved from Billboard.com. The hypothesis for this study is that modern country music should have a less stereotypical view on men and women than older country music. Critical Discourse Analysis has been used to analyse the lyrics, and metaphors, similes and verbs have been analysed in order to reach the aim. The country music culture has been the framework to interpret the results, as well as the view of femininity and masculinity as social constructions. The findings point to more exaggerated versions of masculinity and more stereotypical depictions of femininity being represented in the lyrics than older research made about country music and gender. Masculinity and femininity are depicted as opposites with clear boundaries set between them. The modern lyrics express a desire to claim authenticity through conservative and stereotypical representations of men and women, using metaphors and verbs that enforces certain norms and assumptions about femininity and masculinity.

A pesquisa objetiva conhecer os elementos que sustentam a política do território e da educação do Programa Brasil Quilombola (2008/2011), derivados da relação dialética entre economia e política, mediada pela cultura (Gramsci), sob a qual se desenvolve a análise da questão social quilombola. Materializa-se nas práticas sociais e pedagógicas da comunidade de São Miguel na Escola Municipal Manoel Albino Carvalho, Restinga Seca, Estado do Rio Grande do Sul. A abordagem metodológica é a qualitativa, com os recursos da observação participante, da aplicação de questionários (levantamento sócio econômico e educacional), e entrevista com 21 participantes. A interpretação dialoga com as contribuições gramscianas e de Munanga, Marx, Triviños, Benjamin, Gilroy e Freire. As principais contradições em relação ao Programa se referem à diminuição do orçamento, a partir do ano 2008, no tocante à demarcação e titulação do território. A decisão orçamentária vincula-se diretamente às decisões políticas. Economia e política não se separam. A comunidade obteve no ano de 2009 o Decreto de Desapropriação por Interesse Social, que não garantiu a titulação da área (11/2012). A educação escolar quilombola se concretizou no marco legal das Diretrizes Curriculares Nacionais para a Educação Escolar Quilombola, e o que a torna possível são os saberes práticos que brotam do território, das casas, das rodas de conversas e servem como ponto de partida para uma teoria da educação. Pelas narrativas e metáforas, temos a origem da comunidade onde o escravo da diáspora atua como negociador entre a tradição e a modernidade. Ser quilombola passa pelo processo de aprendizado que chega até a educação escolar. Aqui, não basta saber, ensinar, aprender. É preciso um saber fazer que unifique teoria/prática, casa/escola, ensino/aprendizagem, palavra/ação, oralidade/escrita, memória/experiência, domínio/emancipação. Os resultados demonstram que, no momento da escola ausente, os saberes da casa serviam como principal recurso para a aprendizagem. A escola como instituição é reivindicada pela comunidade para criar as condições de cidadania; se estrutura a partir das relações raciais que dominam o contexto social, produz avanços e, muitas vezes, desaprendizagens. A roda de conversa funciona como uma estratégia política em oposição ao sistema colonial que não permitia a participação do negro nas escolas. Sua dinamicidade potencializa os valores civilizatórios da cultura afro- brasileira onde o quilombola reconstrói de maneira criativa seu mundo existencial em sintonia com a memória da diáspora africana. Todos esses aspectos estabelecem o ponto de partida/chegada da interpretação e compreensão da educação escolar quilombola que precisa se dar na/com a comunidade tradicional em “rodas de conversa”. / The research aims to know the elements that support the policy of territory and education of Brazil Quilombola Programme (2008/2011), derivatives of the dialectical relationship between economics and politics, mediated by culture (Gramsci), which develops under the consideration of the question social quilombola. The research materializes in social and pedagogical practices of the community of São Miguel at the Municipal School Manoel Albino Carvalho, Restinga Seca, State of Rio Grande do Sul. The methodological is qualitative, with the resources of participant observation, the use of questionnaires (survey social economic and educational), and interviews with 21 participants. The interpretation dialogues with Gramscian and Munanga contributions, Marx, Triviños, Benjamin, Gilroy and Freire. The main contradictions related to the Program refer to the reduction of the budget, since 2008, regarding the demarcation and titling of territory. The budget decision is directly linked to political decisions. Economy and politics are inseparable. The community obtained in 2009 by the Decree of Condemnation by Social Interest, which did not guarantee the titling of the area (11/2012). The quilombola education materialized in the legal framework of the National Curriculum Guidelines for Quilombola school and what makes it possible is the practical knowledge that sprout from the territory, the houses, the conversation and serve as a starting point for a theory of education. By the narratives and metaphors, we have the origin of the community where the slave acts as negotiator between tradition and modernity. Being quilombola through the learning process that reaches the education. Here, it is not enough to know, teach, learn. It is necessary to unify theory / practice, home / school, teaching / learning, word / action, oral / written, memory / experience, domain / emancipation. The results show that, when absent from school, the knowledge of the house served as the main resource for learning. The school as an institution is claimed by the community to create the conditions for citizenship if structure from race relations that dominate the social context, and produces advances. The circle of conversation works as a political strategy in opposition to the colonial system that did not allow the participation of black in schools. Its dynamics enhances the civilizing values of african-Brazilian culture where quilombola creatively reconstructs its existential world in tune with the memory of the African. All these aspects make the point of departure / arrival of interpretation and understanding of school education quilombola who needs to give in / to the community in traditional "circle of conversation”.

xv, 198 p. : music / Music has meaning. But what is the nature and source of meaning, what tools can we use to illuminate meaning in musical analysis, and how can we relate aspects of musical structure to our embodied experience? This dissertation provides some possible answers to these questions by examining the role that metaphors and models play in creating musical meaning. By applying Mark Johnson and Steve Larson's conceptual metaphors for musical motion, Larson's theory of musical forces, perspectives on musical gesture, and a wide variety of models in music analysis, I show how meaning is constructed in selected works by Bach and Schubert. My approach focuses on our experience of musical motion as a source of expressive meaning. The analysis of two gigue subjects by Bach shows how we create expressive meaning by mapping musical gestures onto physical gestures, and five detailed case studies from Schubert's Winterreise show how the same basic underlying pulse leads to different expressive meanings based on how that pulse maps onto walking motion. One thread that runs through this dissertation is that models play a significant role in creating meaning; this idea is central to my analysis of the prelude from Bach's fourth cello suite. Questions of meaning are not new to musical discourse; however, claims about meaning often lurk below the surface in many musical analyses. I aim to make the discussion of meaning explicit by laying bare the mechanisms by which meaning is enacted when we engage with music. The view of musical meaning adopted in this study is based on several complementary ideas about meaning in general: meaning is something our minds create, meaning is not fixed, meaning is synonymous with understanding, and meaning emerges from our embodied experience. Other scholars who address musical meaning (for example, Hatten and Larson) typically adopt a singular approach. Although I do not create a new theory of meaning, I employ numerous converging viewpoints. By using a multi-faceted approach, we are able to choose the best available tools to discuss aspects of our musical experience and relate the expressive meaning of that experience to details of musical structure. / Committee in charge: Stephen Rodgers, Chairperson; Jack Boss, Member; Lori Kruckenberg, Member; Steven Larson, Member; Mark Johnson, Outside Member

LIMA, João Paulo Rodrigues de. A emergência de metáforas na fala sobre violência urbana: uma análise cognitivo-discursiva. 2012. 269f. – Dissertação (Mestrado) – Universidade Federal do Ceará, Departamento de Letras Vernáculas, Programa de Pós-graduação em Linguística, Fortaleza (CE), 2012. / Submitted by Márcia Araújo (marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-06-13T12:25:37Z No. of bitstreams: 1 2012_dis_jprlima.pdf: 2631262 bytes, checksum: 1127e65b1d3dd7d1e8465d616cd37446 (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Márcia Araújo(marcia_m_bezerra@yahoo.com.br) on 2014-06-13T13:43:14Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 2012_dis_jprlima.pdf: 2631262 bytes, checksum: 1127e65b1d3dd7d1e8465d616cd37446 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-13T13:43:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 2012_dis_jprlima.pdf: 2631262 bytes, checksum: 1127e65b1d3dd7d1e8465d616cd37446 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012 / The discourse can be seen as a complex dynamic system, which adapts itself according to contextual needs. Thus, the metaphors in the discourse seem to emerge out of a conceptual negotiation along the conversational interaction. Cameron (2003, 2007, 2008) calls these types of metaphors systematic, since they permeate different talks, signaling a collaborative construction. The emergence of these metaphors means a temporary stability, due to the interaction between different agents: pragmatic, social, cultural, historical and cognitive. However, Cameron does not specify which cognitive elements could have been used to emerge these stabilizations. This research suggests the dynamic discursive system is also made of conceptual schematic structures as a result of embodied basic experiences common to every person (or at least to the vast majority): the image and kinesthetic schemas (LAKOFF, 1987; JOHNSON, 1987) and conceptual primary metaphors (GRADY, 1997). Thus, it is understood that systematic metaphors do not emerge only from discourse factors, but also from cognition, in double directionality (discourse-cognition and vice-versa). In order to confirm this thought, it was used the focal group investigation technique. The group was made of college students who talked about urban violence. The discourse was recorded in audio and video, then transcribed according to the procedures listed by Cameron et al. (2009). The research is qualitative, so the data analysis is guided by the following theoretical references: Primary Metaphor Integrated Theory (LAKOFF & JOHNSON, 1999), image and kinesthetic schemas (LAKOFF, 1987; JOHNSON, 1987; LAKOFF & JOHNSON, 1999), Complex Adaptive Dynamic System Theory and the metaphor-led discourse analysis approach (CAMERON, 2003, 2007, 2008; CAMERON ET AL., 2009, CAMERON & MASLEN, 2010). The systematic metaphors identified in the data were matched to schemas and primary metaphors, inferring then the emergence of figurative language in the discourse occurs in two ways. Furthermore, schemas and primary metaphors seem to be some of the cognitive agents present in those emergences, and the discourse topics are at least one of the agents which motivate the use of certain schemas and primary metaphors instead of others. / O discurso pode ser compreendido como um sistema dinâmico complexo, que se adapta de acordo com as necessidades contextuais. Desse modo, as metáforas presentes nos discursos parecem emergir a partir de uma negociação de conceitos durante a interação conversacional. Cameron (2003, 2007, 2008) chama estes tipos de metáforas de sistemáticas, pois percorrem diversas falas, apontando para uma construção colaborativa. A emergência destas metáforas significa uma estabilidade temporária no discurso, resultante da interação entre diversos agentes: pragmáticos, sociais, culturais, históricos e cognitivos. Contudo, Cameron não especifica que recursos cognitivos podem ter sido usados para fazer emergir estas estabilizações. Esta pesquisa sugere que o sistema dinâmico discursivo é também constituído de estruturas conceituais esquemáticas derivadas das experiências básicas corpóreas comuns a todos (ou pelo menos a maioria) dos seres humanos: os esquemas imagético-cinestésicos (LAKOFF, 1987; JOHNSON, 1987) e as metáforas conceituais primárias (GRADY, 1997). Assim, entendemos que a metáfora sistemática não emerge somente do discurso, mas também da cognição, em uma dupla direcionalidade (discurso-cognição e vice-versa). A fim de confirmar este pensamento, foi utilizada a técnica de investigação de grupo focal, formado por jovens adultos universitários, que discorreram sobre violência urbana. O discurso foi gravado em áudio e vídeo, depois transcrito segundo os procedimentos listados por Cameron et al. (2009). A pesquisa é de natureza qualitativa, portanto os dados são interpretados utilizando os seguintes referenciais teóricos: Teoria Integrada da Metáfora Primária (LAKOFF & JOHNSON, 1999), esquemas imagético-cinestésicos (LAKOFF, 1987; JOHNSON, 1987; LAKOFF & JOHNSON, 1999), Teoria dos Sistemas Dinâmicos Complexos Adaptativos e a análise do discurso à luz da metáfora (CAMERON, 2003, 2007, 2008; CAMERON ET AL., 2009, CAMERON & MASLEN, 2010). As metáforas sistemáticas foram identificadas e relacionadas aos esquemas e metáforas primárias, sendo possível inferir que a emergência de linguagem figurada no discurso ocorre dinamicamente em duas vias. Além disso, verificamos que esquemas e metáforas primárias parecem ser alguns dos agentes cognitivos envolvidos nestas emergências, e os tópicos discursivos são os agentes que motivam o uso de certos esquemas e metáforas primárias em detrimento de outros.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo investigar as possíveis interpretações para as indicações metafóricas de partitura do Noturno para Piano nº12 de Almeida Prado. A leitura de teorias sobre metáfora, aliada à pesquisa em outras obras do compositor e outros compositores pianistas, ampararam a reflexão sobre a interpretação das indicações metafóricas. Entrevistas com Almeida Prado foram consultadas em busca da compreensão do processo de evocação de imagens do compositor. Concluiu-se que o estudo aprofundado da obra, voltado para a busca de significados para as indicações metafóricas através da metodologia proposta, favoreceu a coerência e embasamento da interpretação juntamente à compreensão da individualidade e relatividade da interpretação musical. / The objective of the present stud is to investigate the possible interpretations of the metaphorical indications of Almeida Prado‟s Piano Nocturne nº12. The reading of theories about metaphor, allied with the research of other works by this composer and other pianist composers supported the reflection of the interpretation of the metaphorical indications. Interviews with Almeida Prado were consulted in pursuit of the comprehension of the image evocation process of the composer. It was concluded that a more profound study of the work, regarding the search of meanings of the metaphorical indications through the proposed methodology, favored the coherence and foundation of the interpretation, along with the comprehension of the individuality of musical interpretation.

A Música Popular Brasileira teve um papel fundamental na disseminação de mensagens contra o sistema político opressor que vigorou no Brasil entre 1964 e 1985. No período do regime militar, qualquer forma de manifestação contra o sistema vigente era considerada subversiva, e seus veiculadores poderiam sofrer sanções como censura, prisão, tortura, deportação, exílio e até a morte. Nesse contexto, muitos artistas foram perseguidos em nome da ordem nacional. Com o cerceamento cada vez mais implacável, restava aos artistas, principalmente, para efeito deste trabalho de pesquisa, aos compositores, buscar formas mais sutis de passar suas mensagens políticas. Uma das maneiras encontradas para furar o bloqueio da Censura foi por meio do uso da linguagem metafórica. Sob esse prisma, Chico Buarque de Hollanda se mostrou mestre. Ele era o artista mais perseguido da época, a ponto de sofrer pré-censura somente pelo fato de ser ele o compositor. Chico conseguia fazer com que suas letras, mesmo sofrendo cortes, ecoassem mensagens de repulsa ao sistema, e burlava de tal forma a Censura que uma de suas letras atingiu em cheio o então presidente da República sem que os militares percebessem. Neste trabalho de pesquisa, pretendemos verificar que tipo de mensagens havia nas músicas políticas de Chico Buarque. Partimos da concepção de que a MPB era uma depositária das angústias e da insatisfação dos compositores com o sistema vigente e de que a linguagem metafórica utilizada apontava para o momento presente sufocado pelo regime militar. Para tal, analisamos 20 músicas compostas por Chico Buarque de Hollanda com base no estudo de metáforas conceptuais desenvolvido por Lakoff & Johnson (2002). / The Brazilian musical movement known as MPB (Música Popular Brasileira Brazilian Popular Music) has had a fundamental role in getting across messages against the oppressive political system which prevailed in Brazil between the years of 1964 and 1985. During this period, any kind of manifestation against the military regime was considered subversive and its representatives could be subject to penalties such as censorship, prison, torture, deportation, exhile and even death. In this context, certain artists were persecuted in the name of national peace and order. Some, music composers mainly, could not help but try subtler ways of getting their political messages across. One of the ways to break the walls of the Brazilian Censorship was to use metaphoric language. In doing this, Chico Buarque de Hollanda has proven a genius. He was the most often persecuted artist at the time and his compositions were previously censored just because he was the one that had written them. Even though his lyrics had to be altered many times, Chico Buarque managed to make them echo the disgust towards the government; he was so good at fooling the censors that one of his songs actually caused the president serious harm without the military noticing. In this research, we intend to investigate what kind of messages are to be found in Chico Buarques political songs. Our starting point is that MPB can be seen as a repository of the composers anguish and dissatisfaction with the political regime at the time and that the metaphorical language present in the lyrics depicted that moment as suffocated by the military regime. In order to do so, we have based the analysis of 20 songs written by Chico Buarque de Hollanda on the study of conceptual metaphors developed by Lakoff & Johnson (2002).

abstract: As universities, nonprofits, community foundations, and governmental organizations proliferate the language of leadership development and social transformation, it is with an inadequate understanding of what agency is being provoked. With an emphasis on ‘career-focused’ tools and techniques in community development literature and pedagogy, there is too little understanding of the knowledge being drawn upon and created by community workers (CWs). Furthermore, this knowledge is often tacit, bodily, spiritual, and collective, making it even more alien to the empiricism-focused world of social science. Situated meaning-making must be recapitulated in the study of community development in order to better address the complexity and ambiguity of specific practices and the associated construction of identities. This study suggests an alternative way to understand and analyze community development work. Building on fieldwork in the Kumaoni Himalaya of India, it is argued that community workers make sense of the world in large part through the co-construction of dialectic identity metaphors (DIMs). These DIMs help explain to the workers the way the world works, the way it does not work, and what to do about it. More than formal community development theory, I suggest community workers look to dominant DIMs to structure organizational vision and program creation. Furthermore, ideological fragments within local DIMs contribute to the reproduction of dominant ways of knowing and the creation of best practices. For this reason, in situ examination of DIM creation and maintenance is useful for understanding how and why CWs collectively construct their identities and the co-constitutive work. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Community Resources and Development 2016