Objetivo: O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi estabelecer modelo farmacocinéticofarmacodinâmico (modelo PK/PD) para descrever o perfil temporal do efeito bactericida do levofloxacino e do gatifloxacino contra Streptococcus pneumoniae. Método: Para alcançar este objetivo as seguintes etapas foram realizadas: i) foram validadas metodologias analíticas de SPE-HPLC para o gatifloxacino e HPLC para o levofloxacino e o gatifloxacino para quantificação destes em amostras de plasma, microdialisado tecidual e caldo de cultura; ii) foi avaliada a farmacocinética do gatifloxacino em roedores nas doses de 6 e 12 mg/kg via oral e 6 mg/kg via intravenosa (i.v.) e a biodisponibilidade oral foi determinada; iii) foram estabelecidas as condições ideais para microdiálise do gatifloxacino e as taxas de recuperação in vitro, por diálise (EE), retrodiálise (RD) e fluxo líquido zero (NNF) e in vivo, em tecido pulmonar e muscular, por retrodiálise e fluxo líquido zero. Essas recuperações foram utilizadas para determinar a penetração pulmonar do gatifloxacino após a administração i.v. bolus de 6 mg/kg a ratos Wistar sadios; iv) foram simuladas as concentrações livres pulmonares esperadas para humanos após tratamento com diferentes regimes de dosagem para o levofloxacino e o gatifloxacino em modelo de infecção in vitro frente a Streptococcus pneumoniae ATCC® 49619. Simulações de concentrações constantes múltiplas do MIC de cada fármaco também foram realizadas. As curvas de morte bacteriana por tempo obtidas foram modeladas com modelo PK/PD de Emax modificado, com auxílio do programa Scientist® v 2.01. Resultados e Conclusões: i) Os métodos analíticos por SPE-HPLC e HPLC para quantificação do gatifloxacino e do levofloxacino foram validados. As curvas foram lineares na faixa de 20 a 600 ng/mL para plasma e microdialisado tecidual de gatifloxacino e na faixa de 250 a 6000 ng/mL para caldo de cultura para ambos os fármacos, com r > 0,99, independente do método desenvolvido. Em plasma e microdialisado, a exatidão foi ≥ 94,3 %. A recuperação do gatifloxacino dos cartuchos de extração em fase sólida variou entre 95,6 e 99,7 %. A precisão não excedeu 5,8 % do CV. Em caldo de cultura, a exatidão foi ≥ 92,0 % e 93,4 % para o gatifloxacino e o levofloxacino, respectivamente. A precisão não excedeu 3,2 % e 4,2 % do CV para o levofloxacino e o gatifloxacino, respectivamente; ii) A avaliação farmacocinética demonstrou que os modelos abertos de dois compartimentos e de um compartimento com absorção de primeira ordem descreveram adequadamente os perfis plasmáticos após administração do gatifloxacino pelas vias i.v. e oral nas doses de 6 e 12 mg/kg, com CL de 0,9 ± 0,2 e 1,0 ± 0,3 L/h/kg, t½ de 3,3 ± 0,8 e 3,7 ± 0,3 h e Vd de 2,8 ± 0,4 e 3,1 ± 1,0 L/kg, respectivamente. Os parâmetros determinados por abordagem compartimental e não compartimental não diferiram significativamente para as duas vias investigadas (α = 0,05). A ASC0-∞ foi de 4,1 ± 1,6 e 6,6 ± 1,3 μg.h/mL após administração oral e i.v. das doses de 12 e 6 mg/kg, respectivamente, levando a uma biodisponibilidade de 31%. A constante de velocidade de absorção foi alta (5,0 ± 1,8 h-1) e a farmacocinética mostrou-se linear na faixa de doses investigada; iii) A recuperação das sondas de microdiálise in vitro por EE e RD para 80, 160 e 400 ng/mL de gatifloxacino foi de 33,5 ± 1,3%, 33,1 ± 1,2%, 31,8 ± 2,7% e 31,4 ± 2,6%, 33,1 ± 2,2%, 30,6 ± 3,3%, respectivamente. In vivo a recuperação por RD no músculo esquelético e pulmão de ratos Wistar foi de 29,1 ± 1,0% e 30,7 ± 1,4%, respectivamente. A recuperação por NNF in vitro e in vivo foi de 30,9 ± 2,9% e 29,0 ± 0,8%, respectivamente. Desse modo, concluiu-se que a recuperação foi constante e independente do método ou meio utilizado. Os perfis de concentração livre no músculo, pulmão e plasma de ratos Wistar foram virtualmente superpostos após dose de 6 mg/kg i.v., resultando em ASC similares de 3888 ± 734 ng.h/mL, 4138 ± 1071 ng.h/mL e 3805 ± 577 ng.h/mL, respectivamente (α = 0,05). O fator de distribuição tecidual foi de 1,02 e 1,08 para músculo e pulmão, respectivamente; iv) O modelo PK/PD empregado foi capaz de descrever o efeito do levofloxacino e do gatifloxacino contra o Streptococcus pneumoniae in vitro para todas as simulações investigadas. O EC50 médio para o levofloxacino (3,57 ± 2,16 mg/L) foi significativamente maior que o do gatifloxacino (0,95 ± 0,56 mg/L) quando regimes de doses múltiplas foram simulados. O mesmo foi observado para concentrações constantes, sendo o EC50,levofloxacino = 2,75 ± 0,45 mg/L e EC50,gatifloxacino = 1,03 ± 0,52 mg/L. O kmax foi estatisticamente semelhante para ambos os fármacos independente se foram simuladas concentrações flutuantes (kmax,levofloxacino = 0,40 ± 0,19 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacino = 0,48 ± 0,15 h-1) ou concentrações constantes (kmax,levofloxacino = 0,34 ± 0,06 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacino = 0,39 ± 0,23 h-1). Nenhum dos índices PK/PD foi capaz de prever o desfecho da infecção para todas as situações investigadas. O modelo PK/PD desenvolvido permitiu a comparação entre as duas fluorquinolonas e de diferentes posologias para cada fármaco, podendo ser utilizado para simular o efeito temporal de regimes de dosagem alternativos bem como para otimização da posologia desses fármacos para o tratamento da pneumonia adquirida na comunidade. / Objective: The aim of this work was to establish a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model (PK/PD model) to describe the profile of bactericidal effect over time of levofloxacin and gatifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae. Method: To achieve this goal the following steps were carried out: i) an analytical method of SPE-HPLC to quantify gatifloxacin in plasma and tissue microdialysates, and an HPLC method for measuring levofloxacin and gatifloxacin in culture broth samples were developed and validated; ii) the pharmacokinetics of gatifloxacin in rodents after intravenous (6 mg/kg) and oral (6 and 12 mg/kg) administration was assessed as well as the oral bioavailability of the drug was determined; iii) microdialysis conditions for gatifloxacin were established and the recovery rates in vitro by dialysis (EE), retrodialysis (RD) and no-net-flux (NNF), and in vivo in lung and skeletal muscle tissue by RD and NNF were determined. Gatifloxacin tissue penetration in lung after intravenous administration (6 mg/kg) to healthy Wistar rats was determined; iv) levofloxacin and gatifloxacin free lung concentrations expected in humans following different dosing regimens of the drugs were simulated using Streptococcus pneumoniae ATCC® 49619 in vitro model of infection. The effect of constant concentrations multiples of MIC were also investigated. The time-kill curves obtained were modeled using an Emax modified model using Scientist® v. 2.01 software. Results and Conclusions: i) The analytical methods by SPE-HPLC and HPLC for quantifying gatifloxacin and levofloxacin were validated. Calibration curves were linear between 20-600 ng/mL for gatifloxacin in plasma and tissue microdialysate samples and between 250-6000 ng/mL for broth media for both drugs, with r > 0.99 independently of the method considered. The accuracy was ≥ 94.3 % for plasma and microdialysate. Gatifloxacin recovery from the solid phase extraction cartridges ranged from 95.6 to 99.7%. The precision did not exceed 5.8% of the CV. In broth media the accuracy was ≥ 92.0% and 94.3% for gatifloxacin and levofloxacin, respectively. The precision did not exceed 3.2% and 4.2% of the CV for levofloxacin and gatifloxacin, respectively; ii) Gatifloxacin experimental plasma profiles in rats were adequately fitted to a two-compartment model after intravenous and to a one compartment model with first order absorption after oral dosing. The total clearance (0.9 ± 0.2 and 1.0 ± 0.3 L/h/kg), the terminal half-life (3.3 ± 0.8 and 3.7 ± 0.3 h) and the apparent volume of distribution (2.8 ± 0.4 and 3.1 ± 1.0 L/kg) were statistically similar (α = 0.05) after i.v. and oral administration, by both model independent and compartmental approaches. The area under the curve was reduced after oral dosing (4.1 ± 1.6 μg.h/mL) in comparison to i.v. dosing (6.6 ± 1.3 μg.h/mL) leading to an oral bioavailability of 31%. The absorption was fast, with a constant rate of 5.0 ± 1.8 h-1. The results evidenced the linear pharmacokinetics of gatifloxacin in rodents in the dose range investigated; iii) Microdialysis recoveries determined in vitro by EE and RD at 80, 160 and 400 ng/mL resulted in 33.5 ± 1.3%, 33.1 ± 1.2%, 31.8 ± 2.7% and 31.4 ± 2.6%, 33.1 ± 2.2%, 30.6 ± 3.3%, respectively. In vivo recovery by RD in Wistar rat’s skeletal muscle and lung were 29.1 ± 1.0% and 30.7 ± 1.4%, respectively. Recoveries by no-net-flux in vitro and in vivo resulted in recoveries of 30.9 ± 2.9% and 29.0 ± 0.8%, respectively. In this way, it was shown that gatifloxacin recovery was constant and independent of the method or media used. Free skeletal muscle, lung and plasma profiles were virtually superimposed after i.v. administration of gatifloxacin 6 mg/kg dose resulting in similar area under the curve of 3888 ± 734 ng.h/mL, 4138 ± 1071 ng.h/mL and 3805 ± 577 ng.h/mL, respectively (α = 0.05). The tissue distribution factors were determined to be 1.02 and 1.08 for muscle and lung, respectively; iv) The PK/PD model used was able to describe the effect of levofloxacin and gatifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in vitro for all the regimens investigated. Levofloxacin EC50 (3.57 ± 2.16 mg/L) was higher than gatifloxacin (0.95 ± 0.56 mg/L) when multiple dosing regimens where simulated. Using constant concentrations, levofloxacin EC50 was also higher than gatifloxacin (EC50,levofloxacin = 2.75 ± 0.45 mg/L; EC50,gatifloxacin = 1.03 ± 0.52 mg/L). The kmax was statistically similar for both drugs independent of whether fluctuating (kmax,levofloxacin = 0.40 ± 0.19 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacin = 0.48 ± 0.15 h-1) or constant concentrations (kmax,levofloxacin = 0.34 ± 0.06 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacin = 0.39 ± 0.23 h-1) were simulated. None of the PK/PD indices was capable of predicting the infection outcome for all the situations investigated. The PK/PD model developed allowed not only the comparison between the fluoroquinolones effect but also the comparison of different dosing regimes for the same drug and can be used for simulating alternative regimens and optimizing therapy of these drugs to treat community-acquired pneumonia.

Biofilmes são comunidades bacterianas complexas encapsuladas em matrizes poliméricas autoproduzidas e podem se desenvolver em superfícies inertes ou tecidos vivos. A formação do biofilme é um importante fator de virulência, pois permite à bactéria resistir às respostas do hospedeiro e à terapia antimicrobiana. Devido a essa elevada resistência aos antimicrobianos, é difícil estabelecer uma estratégia eficaz para o tratamento de infecções com formação de biofilmes, levando a falhas na erradicação das mesmas. Nesse contexto, o objetivo do presente estudo é desenvolver um modelo farmacocinético/farmacodinâmico (PK/PD) para descrever o efeito do ciprofloxacino (CIP) na presença de biofilmes de Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), visto que a modelagem PK/PD de antimicrobianos é uma ferramenta útil na escolha de regimes posológicos que atinjam o efeito bactericida máximo, minimizando o desenvolvimento de resistência. Para atingir esse objetivo, inicialmente um método analítico por CLAE/fluorescência foi desenvolvido para quantificar o CIP em amostras de plasma e microdialisado. O método desenvolvido foi simples, rápido e com sensibilidade adequada para corretamente caracterizar a farmacocinética plasmática e pulmonar do CIP. Posteriormente, um modelo animal de infecção pulmonar crônica foi adaptado da literatura e padronizado, permitindo a investigação da distribuição pulmonar do CIP em ratos Wistar sadios e infectados. Para tal, bactérias foram imobilizadas em beads de alginato a fim de manter a infecção por até 14 dias com cargas bacterianas superiores à 108 UFC/pulmão. Estudo de microdiálise foi então conduzido para avaliar as concentrações livres de CIP após administração intravenosa de 20 mg/kg. A análise não-compartimental (NCA) e a modelagem farmacocinética populacional (PopPK) dos dados foram realizadas nos softwares Phoenix® e NONMEM®, respectivamente. Diferenças significativas foram observadas no clearance plasmático (1,59 ± 0,41 L/h/kg e 0,89 ± 0,44 L/h/kg) e na constante de eliminação (0,23 ± 0,04 h-1 e 0,14 ± 0,08 h-1) para ratos sadios e infectados, resultando em uma exposição plasmática maior nos animais infectados (ASC0-∞ = 27,3 ± 12,1 μg·h/mL) quando comparados com os animais sadios (ASC0-∞ = 13,3 ± 3,5 μg·h/mL) ( = 0,05). Apesar da maior exposição plasmática, quando comparados com os animais saudáveis (fT = 1,69), animais infectados apresentaram uma penetração pulmonar quatro vezes menor (fT = 0,44). Diferenças na constante de eliminação pulmonar não foram observadas. Dados plasmáticos e pulmonares foram simultaneamente descritos por modelo PopPK constituído de compartimentos venoso e arterial, dois compartimentos representativos de duas regiões pulmonares distintas e dois compartimentos periféricos, representando outros tecidos que não os pulmões. Um clearance pulmonar foi adicionado ao modelo apenas para os dados de microdiálise dos animais infectados (CLlung = 0,643 L/h/kg) afim de explicar a exposição tecidual diminuída. O modelo desenvolvido descreveu, com sucesso, os dados plasmáticos e teciduais de animais sadios e infectados, permitindo a correta caracterização das alterações observadas na disposição plasmática e pulmonar do CIP decorrentes da infecção com biofilme. Para os estudos de farmacodinâmica, o efeito bactericida do CIP frente a biofilmes e células planctônicas de P. aeruginosa foi simultaneamente avaliado através do uso de curvas de morte bacteriana. Para a construção destas curvas, biofilmes de P. aeruginosa foram formados na superfície de blocos de acrílico e sua formação foi confirmada pelo ensaio cristal violeta e por microscopia eletrônica de varredura. Os blocos foram expostos a concentrações constantes de CIP (de 0,0625 a 10 μg/mL) e, em tempos pré-determinados, células planctônicas e de biofilmes eram amostradas para quantificação. Um modelo semi-mecanístico que incorpora um modelo Emax sigmoidal foi utilizado para descrever o efeito do CIP frente a ambos estilos de vida bacteriano. Uma subpopulação pré-existente com menor suscetibilidade ao CIP foi incluída no modelo e o efeito do CIP nesta subpopulação também foi descrito pelo modelo Emax sigmoidal. A comparação dos parâmetros estimados pelo modelo demonstrou que o efeito in vitro do CIP é maior para as células planctônicas (EC50 = 0,259 mg/L e 0,123 mg/L e Emax = 2,25 h-1 e 5,59 h-1 para biofilmes e planctônicas, respectivamente). A potência estimada do CIP para a subpopulação resistente foi muito menor para ambos estilos de vida bacteriano (EC50 = 2,71 mg/L e 1,15 mg/L para biofilmes e planctônicas, respectivamente). Os modelos desenvolvidos podem ser utilizados para a simulação de cenários não testados e servir como uma ferramenta para guiar a escolha dos regimes posológicos adequados, contribuindo para o sucesso terapêutico no tratamento de infecções associadas à biofilmes. / Biofilms are complex bacterial communities enclosed in self-produced polymeric matrices that can develop in inert surfaces or living tissues. Biofilm formation is an important virulence factor that allows bacteria to resist host responses and antibacterial agents. Due to this high resistance to antibiotics, it is difficult to establish an efficacious strategy for treatment of infections with biofilm formation leading to failure in infection eradication. In this context, the goal of this study was to develop a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model to describe the antimicrobial effect of ciprofloxacin (CIP) in the presence of biofilms of Pseudomonas aeruginosa (ATCC 27853), since PK/PD modeling for antibacterial agents can be a useful tool to choose dosing regimens and to achieve the maximum bactericidal effect, minimizing the development of resistance. To reach this goal, firstly an analytical method based on HPLC/fluorescence was developed in order to quantify CIP in plasma and lung microdialysate. The developed method was simple, fast and with enough sensibility to proper characterize CIP plasma and lung pharmacokinetics. Secondly, an animal model of chronic lung infection was adapted from literature and standardized, allowing the analysis of CIP lung distribution in infected and healthy Wistar rats. Bacteria were immobilized in alginate beads prior to inoculation to Wistar rats in order to sustain the pneumonia for 14 days, maintaining a bacterial load superior to 108 CFU/lung. A microdialysis study was then conducted to evaluate free CIP concentrations after an intravenous administration of 20 mg/kg. Non-compartimental analysis (NCA) and populational PK modeling (PopPK) of the data were performed in Phoenix® and NONMEM®, respectively. Statistical differences were observed in the plasma clearance (1.59 ± 0.41 L/h/kg and 0.89 ± 0.44 L/h/kg) and elimination rate constant (0.23 ± 0.04 h-1and 0.14 ± 0.08 h-1) for healthy and infected rats, respectively, resulting in a significantly higher CIP plasma exposure in infected rats (AUC0-∞ = 27.3 ± 12.1 μg·h/mL) compare to healthy animals (AUC0-∞ = 13.3 ± 3.5 μg·h/mL) ( = 0.05). Besides the plasma exposure, a four times lower pulmonary penetration was observed in infected rat’s lungs (fT = 0.44) in comparison to healthy animals (fT = 1.69), with no significant differences in the lung elimination rate constant. Plasma and lung data were simultaneously fitted using a PopPK model consisting of an arterial and a venous compartment, two compartments representing different regions of the lungs and two peripheral distribution compartments, representing tissues other than lungs. A lung clearance was added to the model for infected animals (CLlung = 0.643 L/h/kg) to explain the lower tissue exposure. The model successfully described the plasma and microdialysis data from both, healthy and infected rats and allowed to correctly describe the changes in CIP plasma and lung disposition in biofilm infections. For the pharmacodynamic studies, CIP bactericidal effect against Pseudomonas aeruginosa biofilms and planktonic shedding cells were simultaneously evaluated using the time-kill curves approach. For the time-kill curves construction, P. aeruginosa biofilms were formed in acrylic blocks, which was confirmed by the crystal violet assay and scanning electron microscopy. The blocks were placed in flasks containing Mueller-Hinton growth medium and exposed to constant CIP concentrations (ranging from 0.0625 to 10 μg/mL). At pre-determined time points, biofilm and planktonic cells were sampled for bacterial counting. A mechanism-based model which incorporates a sigmoidal Emax model was used to describe the CIP effect against P.aeruginosa in both llifestyles, biofilm and planktonic. The presence of a pre-existing resistant subpopulation was included in the model and also modeled with a sigmoidal Emax model to describe CIP effect in this subpopulation. Comparison of the parameter estimates showed that the in vitro effect of CIP is higher for planktonic cells (EC50 = 0.259 mg/L and 0.123 mg/L and Emax = 2.25 h-1 and 5.59 h-1 for biofilm and planktonic cells, respectively). CIP potency was much lower for the resistant subpopulation, for both bacteria lifestyles (EC50 = 2.71 mg/L and 1.15 mg/L for biofilm and planktonic, respectively). The developed models can be used to simulate untested scenarios and serve as a tool to guide dosing regimen selection, contributing for the therapeutic success of treatments of biofilm-associated infections.

Objetivo: O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi desenvolver um modelo farmacocinético/farmacodinâmico (PK/PD) para descrever o efeito bactericida in vitro das fluoroquinolonas levofloxacino (LEV) e moxifloxacino (MXF)contra Escherichia coli, baseando-se em dados in vivo de concentração livre prostática. Métodos: Ratos Wistar machos foram utilizados nos experimentos in vivo para determinação da farmacocinética plasmática e prostática do LEV (7 mg/kg) e MXF (6 e 12 mg/kg) após dose i.v. bolus. As concentrações livres prostáticas foram determinadas por microdiálise. A coleta das amostras de plasma e dialisado de tecido foi realizada simultaneamente nos animais previamente anestesiados com uretano para determinação do fator de distribuição tecidual (fT). Para a quantificação do LEV e MXF nas amostras de plasma e dialisado, métodos analíticos foram validados. Análise farmacocinética não-compartimental e modelagem compartimental dos dados foram realizadas utilizando o WinNonlin® e NONMEM® v. 6, respectivamente. Os experimentos de farmacodinâmica in vitro foram executados utilizando sistema composto de caldo de cultura Mueller-Hinton no qual a bactéria teste (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) foi exposta a concentrações constantes e flutuantes dos antimicrobianos. O número de colônias bacterianas viáveis (CFU/mL) foi determinado em função do tempo e utilizado como parâmetro farmacodinâmico para construção das curvas de morte bacteriana (time-kill curves). Nos experimentos de time-kill curves estáticos, concentrações baseadas em múltiplos da MIC na faixa de 0.008–2 mg/L foram utilizadas, enquanto que no dinâmico a meia-vida de eliminação do LEV em humanos foi simulada no sistema in vitro através de diluição constante do caldo de cultura. Resultados e Discussão: Um método analítico por HPLC-fluorescência foi desenvolvido e validado para a quantificação do MXF nas amostras biológicas. Método analítico também foi validado para quantificação do LEV nas amostras. Os perfis plasmáticos e teciduais das duas fluoroquinolonas foram modelados simultaneamente utilizando modelo de três compartimentos considerando transporte linear (difusão passiva) e saturável (cinética de Michaelis-Menten). O modelo, que foi o mais adequado para descrever os dados experimentais, sugere a presença de transportadores de efluxo na próstata. A penetração prostática média do MXF foi significativamente maior que a do LEV (fT = 1.24 vs. 0.78) e foi independente da dose. Em ratos, não foi observada diferença na meia-vida plasmática média entre LEV (5.0 h) e MXF (4.9 h), embora a meia-vida tecidual foi ligeiramente maior para o MXF (3.3 vs. 2.3 h). Usando a abordagem populacional de modelagem PK/PD, modelo de Emax sigmoidal foi utilizado para descrever o efeito das duas quinolonas frente a E. coli tanto nos experimentos de concentração estática quanto dinâmica. A comparação dos parâmetros PK/PD estimados mostrou que o MXF apresenta potência superior ao LEV contra a cepa através da comparação dos valores de EC50, embora ambos tenham apresentado eficácia comparável (Emax de 1.85 e 1.83 h-1 para MXF e LEV, respectivamente). Para o LEV, os esquemas posológicos de 500 mg q12 h e 1000 mg q24 h apresentaram maior eficácia no período de 24 h, pois promoveram a inibição completa do recrescimento bacteriano observado nos outros dois regimes de dose testados. Conclusões: A correlação dos dados de farmacocinéticain vivo com os experimentos de farmacodinâmica in vitro, seguida da construção do modelo PK/PD de efeito máximo, possibilitou explorar a relação do efeito antimicrobiano em função do tempo baseada em concentrações livres esperadas na prostatite. / Objective: The aim of this study was to develop a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model to describe the in vitro bactericidal effect of the fluoroquinolones levofloxacin (LEV) and moxifloxacin (MXF) against Escherichia coli based on free concentrations in prostate tissue measured in vivo. Methods: Pharmacokinetic experiments were conducted in male Wistar rats for the determination of plasma and free prostate concentrations of LEV (7 mg/kg) and MXF (6 and 12 mg/kg) after i.v. bolus administration. Blood and tissue dialysate samples were collected simultaneously in the group of rats previously anesthetized with urethane to determine the tissue distribution factor (fT). To quantify MXF and LEV in plasma and dialysate samples obtained after administration of the quinolones, analytical methods based on HPLC-fluorescence were developed and validated accordingly. Non-compartmental analysis and compartmental PK modeling of the data was performed in WinNonlin® and NONMEM® v. 6, respectively. The in vitro pharmacodynamic experiments were executed by using a system composed of Mueller-Hinton growth medium in which the test bacterial strain (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) was exposed to constant and fluctuating antimicrobial concentrations. The number of viable colony-forming units (CFU/mL) was determined as a function of time and used as the pharmacodynamic parameter for construction of bacterial time-kill curves. In the static time-kill curves, concentrations in the range of 0.008-2 mg/L were tested based on multiples of the MIC, whereas in the dynamic time-kill curves the half-life of LEV in humans was simulated in the in vitro system by stepwise dilution of the growth medium. Results and Discussion: An HPLC-fluorescence method was developed and fully validated to quantify MXF in biological fluids. A method was also validated to determine LEV in the samples. Plasma and prostate concentrations of both drugs were simultaneously fitted using a three-compartment model considering linear (passive diffusion) and saturable transport (Michaelis-Menten kinetics), suggesting the presence of efflux transporters in the prostate. The average tissue penetration of MXF in the prostate was significantly higher than that of LEV (fT = 1.24 vs. 0.78) and was independent of the dose. In rats, differences in average plasma half-life between plasma LEV (5.0 h) and MXF (4.9 h) were not observed, even though the tissue half-life was slightly longer for MXF (3.3 vs. 2.3 h). Using a population PK/PD modeling approach, a sigmoidal Emax model was used to describe the effect of the two quinolones against E. coli both in the static as well as in the dynamic time-kill curves. Comparison of the PK/PD parameter estimates showed that the in vitro potency of MXF is higher than LEV against the strain tested as shown by EC50 values, but both presented equivalent efficacy (Emax of 1.85 and 1.83 h-1 for MXF and LEV, respectively). For LEV, the dosing regimens of 500 mg q12 h and 1,000 mg q24 h showed overall greater efficacy over the 24 h period as they resulted in complete inhibition of bacterial regrowth observed in the other two dosing regimens tested. Conclusions: The correlation of in vivo pharmacokinetic data with in vitro pharmacodynamic experiments, followed by the development of an Emax PK/PD model, allowed determining the relationship between the bactericidal effect as a function of time based on free tissue concentrations expected in the site of infection.

Objetivo: O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi estabelecer modelo farmacocinéticofarmacodinâmico (modelo PK/PD) para descrever o perfil temporal do efeito bactericida do levofloxacino e do gatifloxacino contra Streptococcus pneumoniae. Método: Para alcançar este objetivo as seguintes etapas foram realizadas: i) foram validadas metodologias analíticas de SPE-HPLC para o gatifloxacino e HPLC para o levofloxacino e o gatifloxacino para quantificação destes em amostras de plasma, microdialisado tecidual e caldo de cultura; ii) foi avaliada a farmacocinética do gatifloxacino em roedores nas doses de 6 e 12 mg/kg via oral e 6 mg/kg via intravenosa (i.v.) e a biodisponibilidade oral foi determinada; iii) foram estabelecidas as condições ideais para microdiálise do gatifloxacino e as taxas de recuperação in vitro, por diálise (EE), retrodiálise (RD) e fluxo líquido zero (NNF) e in vivo, em tecido pulmonar e muscular, por retrodiálise e fluxo líquido zero. Essas recuperações foram utilizadas para determinar a penetração pulmonar do gatifloxacino após a administração i.v. bolus de 6 mg/kg a ratos Wistar sadios; iv) foram simuladas as concentrações livres pulmonares esperadas para humanos após tratamento com diferentes regimes de dosagem para o levofloxacino e o gatifloxacino em modelo de infecção in vitro frente a Streptococcus pneumoniae ATCC® 49619. Simulações de concentrações constantes múltiplas do MIC de cada fármaco também foram realizadas. As curvas de morte bacteriana por tempo obtidas foram modeladas com modelo PK/PD de Emax modificado, com auxílio do programa Scientist® v 2.01. Resultados e Conclusões: i) Os métodos analíticos por SPE-HPLC e HPLC para quantificação do gatifloxacino e do levofloxacino foram validados. As curvas foram lineares na faixa de 20 a 600 ng/mL para plasma e microdialisado tecidual de gatifloxacino e na faixa de 250 a 6000 ng/mL para caldo de cultura para ambos os fármacos, com r > 0,99, independente do método desenvolvido. Em plasma e microdialisado, a exatidão foi ≥ 94,3 %. A recuperação do gatifloxacino dos cartuchos de extração em fase sólida variou entre 95,6 e 99,7 %. A precisão não excedeu 5,8 % do CV. Em caldo de cultura, a exatidão foi ≥ 92,0 % e 93,4 % para o gatifloxacino e o levofloxacino, respectivamente. A precisão não excedeu 3,2 % e 4,2 % do CV para o levofloxacino e o gatifloxacino, respectivamente; ii) A avaliação farmacocinética demonstrou que os modelos abertos de dois compartimentos e de um compartimento com absorção de primeira ordem descreveram adequadamente os perfis plasmáticos após administração do gatifloxacino pelas vias i.v. e oral nas doses de 6 e 12 mg/kg, com CL de 0,9 ± 0,2 e 1,0 ± 0,3 L/h/kg, t½ de 3,3 ± 0,8 e 3,7 ± 0,3 h e Vd de 2,8 ± 0,4 e 3,1 ± 1,0 L/kg, respectivamente. Os parâmetros determinados por abordagem compartimental e não compartimental não diferiram significativamente para as duas vias investigadas (α = 0,05). A ASC0-∞ foi de 4,1 ± 1,6 e 6,6 ± 1,3 μg.h/mL após administração oral e i.v. das doses de 12 e 6 mg/kg, respectivamente, levando a uma biodisponibilidade de 31%. A constante de velocidade de absorção foi alta (5,0 ± 1,8 h-1) e a farmacocinética mostrou-se linear na faixa de doses investigada; iii) A recuperação das sondas de microdiálise in vitro por EE e RD para 80, 160 e 400 ng/mL de gatifloxacino foi de 33,5 ± 1,3%, 33,1 ± 1,2%, 31,8 ± 2,7% e 31,4 ± 2,6%, 33,1 ± 2,2%, 30,6 ± 3,3%, respectivamente. In vivo a recuperação por RD no músculo esquelético e pulmão de ratos Wistar foi de 29,1 ± 1,0% e 30,7 ± 1,4%, respectivamente. A recuperação por NNF in vitro e in vivo foi de 30,9 ± 2,9% e 29,0 ± 0,8%, respectivamente. Desse modo, concluiu-se que a recuperação foi constante e independente do método ou meio utilizado. Os perfis de concentração livre no músculo, pulmão e plasma de ratos Wistar foram virtualmente superpostos após dose de 6 mg/kg i.v., resultando em ASC similares de 3888 ± 734 ng.h/mL, 4138 ± 1071 ng.h/mL e 3805 ± 577 ng.h/mL, respectivamente (α = 0,05). O fator de distribuição tecidual foi de 1,02 e 1,08 para músculo e pulmão, respectivamente; iv) O modelo PK/PD empregado foi capaz de descrever o efeito do levofloxacino e do gatifloxacino contra o Streptococcus pneumoniae in vitro para todas as simulações investigadas. O EC50 médio para o levofloxacino (3,57 ± 2,16 mg/L) foi significativamente maior que o do gatifloxacino (0,95 ± 0,56 mg/L) quando regimes de doses múltiplas foram simulados. O mesmo foi observado para concentrações constantes, sendo o EC50,levofloxacino = 2,75 ± 0,45 mg/L e EC50,gatifloxacino = 1,03 ± 0,52 mg/L. O kmax foi estatisticamente semelhante para ambos os fármacos independente se foram simuladas concentrações flutuantes (kmax,levofloxacino = 0,40 ± 0,19 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacino = 0,48 ± 0,15 h-1) ou concentrações constantes (kmax,levofloxacino = 0,34 ± 0,06 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacino = 0,39 ± 0,23 h-1). Nenhum dos índices PK/PD foi capaz de prever o desfecho da infecção para todas as situações investigadas. O modelo PK/PD desenvolvido permitiu a comparação entre as duas fluorquinolonas e de diferentes posologias para cada fármaco, podendo ser utilizado para simular o efeito temporal de regimes de dosagem alternativos bem como para otimização da posologia desses fármacos para o tratamento da pneumonia adquirida na comunidade. / Objective: The aim of this work was to establish a pharmacokinetic-pharmacodynamic model (PK/PD model) to describe the profile of bactericidal effect over time of levofloxacin and gatifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae. Method: To achieve this goal the following steps were carried out: i) an analytical method of SPE-HPLC to quantify gatifloxacin in plasma and tissue microdialysates, and an HPLC method for measuring levofloxacin and gatifloxacin in culture broth samples were developed and validated; ii) the pharmacokinetics of gatifloxacin in rodents after intravenous (6 mg/kg) and oral (6 and 12 mg/kg) administration was assessed as well as the oral bioavailability of the drug was determined; iii) microdialysis conditions for gatifloxacin were established and the recovery rates in vitro by dialysis (EE), retrodialysis (RD) and no-net-flux (NNF), and in vivo in lung and skeletal muscle tissue by RD and NNF were determined. Gatifloxacin tissue penetration in lung after intravenous administration (6 mg/kg) to healthy Wistar rats was determined; iv) levofloxacin and gatifloxacin free lung concentrations expected in humans following different dosing regimens of the drugs were simulated using Streptococcus pneumoniae ATCC® 49619 in vitro model of infection. The effect of constant concentrations multiples of MIC were also investigated. The time-kill curves obtained were modeled using an Emax modified model using Scientist® v. 2.01 software. Results and Conclusions: i) The analytical methods by SPE-HPLC and HPLC for quantifying gatifloxacin and levofloxacin were validated. Calibration curves were linear between 20-600 ng/mL for gatifloxacin in plasma and tissue microdialysate samples and between 250-6000 ng/mL for broth media for both drugs, with r > 0.99 independently of the method considered. The accuracy was ≥ 94.3 % for plasma and microdialysate. Gatifloxacin recovery from the solid phase extraction cartridges ranged from 95.6 to 99.7%. The precision did not exceed 5.8% of the CV. In broth media the accuracy was ≥ 92.0% and 94.3% for gatifloxacin and levofloxacin, respectively. The precision did not exceed 3.2% and 4.2% of the CV for levofloxacin and gatifloxacin, respectively; ii) Gatifloxacin experimental plasma profiles in rats were adequately fitted to a two-compartment model after intravenous and to a one compartment model with first order absorption after oral dosing. The total clearance (0.9 ± 0.2 and 1.0 ± 0.3 L/h/kg), the terminal half-life (3.3 ± 0.8 and 3.7 ± 0.3 h) and the apparent volume of distribution (2.8 ± 0.4 and 3.1 ± 1.0 L/kg) were statistically similar (α = 0.05) after i.v. and oral administration, by both model independent and compartmental approaches. The area under the curve was reduced after oral dosing (4.1 ± 1.6 μg.h/mL) in comparison to i.v. dosing (6.6 ± 1.3 μg.h/mL) leading to an oral bioavailability of 31%. The absorption was fast, with a constant rate of 5.0 ± 1.8 h-1. The results evidenced the linear pharmacokinetics of gatifloxacin in rodents in the dose range investigated; iii) Microdialysis recoveries determined in vitro by EE and RD at 80, 160 and 400 ng/mL resulted in 33.5 ± 1.3%, 33.1 ± 1.2%, 31.8 ± 2.7% and 31.4 ± 2.6%, 33.1 ± 2.2%, 30.6 ± 3.3%, respectively. In vivo recovery by RD in Wistar rat’s skeletal muscle and lung were 29.1 ± 1.0% and 30.7 ± 1.4%, respectively. Recoveries by no-net-flux in vitro and in vivo resulted in recoveries of 30.9 ± 2.9% and 29.0 ± 0.8%, respectively. In this way, it was shown that gatifloxacin recovery was constant and independent of the method or media used. Free skeletal muscle, lung and plasma profiles were virtually superimposed after i.v. administration of gatifloxacin 6 mg/kg dose resulting in similar area under the curve of 3888 ± 734 ng.h/mL, 4138 ± 1071 ng.h/mL and 3805 ± 577 ng.h/mL, respectively (α = 0.05). The tissue distribution factors were determined to be 1.02 and 1.08 for muscle and lung, respectively; iv) The PK/PD model used was able to describe the effect of levofloxacin and gatifloxacin against Streptococcus pneumoniae in vitro for all the regimens investigated. Levofloxacin EC50 (3.57 ± 2.16 mg/L) was higher than gatifloxacin (0.95 ± 0.56 mg/L) when multiple dosing regimens where simulated. Using constant concentrations, levofloxacin EC50 was also higher than gatifloxacin (EC50,levofloxacin = 2.75 ± 0.45 mg/L; EC50,gatifloxacin = 1.03 ± 0.52 mg/L). The kmax was statistically similar for both drugs independent of whether fluctuating (kmax,levofloxacin = 0.40 ± 0.19 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacin = 0.48 ± 0.15 h-1) or constant concentrations (kmax,levofloxacin = 0.34 ± 0.06 h-1; kmax,gatifloxacin = 0.39 ± 0.23 h-1) were simulated. None of the PK/PD indices was capable of predicting the infection outcome for all the situations investigated. The PK/PD model developed allowed not only the comparison between the fluoroquinolones effect but also the comparison of different dosing regimes for the same drug and can be used for simulating alternative regimens and optimizing therapy of these drugs to treat community-acquired pneumonia.

Objetivo: O objetivo geral deste trabalho foi desenvolver um modelo farmacocinético/farmacodinâmico (PK/PD) para descrever o efeito bactericida in vitro das fluoroquinolonas levofloxacino (LEV) e moxifloxacino (MXF)contra Escherichia coli, baseando-se em dados in vivo de concentração livre prostática. Métodos: Ratos Wistar machos foram utilizados nos experimentos in vivo para determinação da farmacocinética plasmática e prostática do LEV (7 mg/kg) e MXF (6 e 12 mg/kg) após dose i.v. bolus. As concentrações livres prostáticas foram determinadas por microdiálise. A coleta das amostras de plasma e dialisado de tecido foi realizada simultaneamente nos animais previamente anestesiados com uretano para determinação do fator de distribuição tecidual (fT). Para a quantificação do LEV e MXF nas amostras de plasma e dialisado, métodos analíticos foram validados. Análise farmacocinética não-compartimental e modelagem compartimental dos dados foram realizadas utilizando o WinNonlin® e NONMEM® v. 6, respectivamente. Os experimentos de farmacodinâmica in vitro foram executados utilizando sistema composto de caldo de cultura Mueller-Hinton no qual a bactéria teste (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) foi exposta a concentrações constantes e flutuantes dos antimicrobianos. O número de colônias bacterianas viáveis (CFU/mL) foi determinado em função do tempo e utilizado como parâmetro farmacodinâmico para construção das curvas de morte bacteriana (time-kill curves). Nos experimentos de time-kill curves estáticos, concentrações baseadas em múltiplos da MIC na faixa de 0.008–2 mg/L foram utilizadas, enquanto que no dinâmico a meia-vida de eliminação do LEV em humanos foi simulada no sistema in vitro através de diluição constante do caldo de cultura. Resultados e Discussão: Um método analítico por HPLC-fluorescência foi desenvolvido e validado para a quantificação do MXF nas amostras biológicas. Método analítico também foi validado para quantificação do LEV nas amostras. Os perfis plasmáticos e teciduais das duas fluoroquinolonas foram modelados simultaneamente utilizando modelo de três compartimentos considerando transporte linear (difusão passiva) e saturável (cinética de Michaelis-Menten). O modelo, que foi o mais adequado para descrever os dados experimentais, sugere a presença de transportadores de efluxo na próstata. A penetração prostática média do MXF foi significativamente maior que a do LEV (fT = 1.24 vs. 0.78) e foi independente da dose. Em ratos, não foi observada diferença na meia-vida plasmática média entre LEV (5.0 h) e MXF (4.9 h), embora a meia-vida tecidual foi ligeiramente maior para o MXF (3.3 vs. 2.3 h). Usando a abordagem populacional de modelagem PK/PD, modelo de Emax sigmoidal foi utilizado para descrever o efeito das duas quinolonas frente a E. coli tanto nos experimentos de concentração estática quanto dinâmica. A comparação dos parâmetros PK/PD estimados mostrou que o MXF apresenta potência superior ao LEV contra a cepa através da comparação dos valores de EC50, embora ambos tenham apresentado eficácia comparável (Emax de 1.85 e 1.83 h-1 para MXF e LEV, respectivamente). Para o LEV, os esquemas posológicos de 500 mg q12 h e 1000 mg q24 h apresentaram maior eficácia no período de 24 h, pois promoveram a inibição completa do recrescimento bacteriano observado nos outros dois regimes de dose testados. Conclusões: A correlação dos dados de farmacocinéticain vivo com os experimentos de farmacodinâmica in vitro, seguida da construção do modelo PK/PD de efeito máximo, possibilitou explorar a relação do efeito antimicrobiano em função do tempo baseada em concentrações livres esperadas na prostatite. / Objective: The aim of this study was to develop a pharmacokinetic/pharmacodynamic (PK/PD) model to describe the in vitro bactericidal effect of the fluoroquinolones levofloxacin (LEV) and moxifloxacin (MXF) against Escherichia coli based on free concentrations in prostate tissue measured in vivo. Methods: Pharmacokinetic experiments were conducted in male Wistar rats for the determination of plasma and free prostate concentrations of LEV (7 mg/kg) and MXF (6 and 12 mg/kg) after i.v. bolus administration. Blood and tissue dialysate samples were collected simultaneously in the group of rats previously anesthetized with urethane to determine the tissue distribution factor (fT). To quantify MXF and LEV in plasma and dialysate samples obtained after administration of the quinolones, analytical methods based on HPLC-fluorescence were developed and validated accordingly. Non-compartmental analysis and compartmental PK modeling of the data was performed in WinNonlin® and NONMEM® v. 6, respectively. The in vitro pharmacodynamic experiments were executed by using a system composed of Mueller-Hinton growth medium in which the test bacterial strain (Escherichia coli ATCC 25922) was exposed to constant and fluctuating antimicrobial concentrations. The number of viable colony-forming units (CFU/mL) was determined as a function of time and used as the pharmacodynamic parameter for construction of bacterial time-kill curves. In the static time-kill curves, concentrations in the range of 0.008-2 mg/L were tested based on multiples of the MIC, whereas in the dynamic time-kill curves the half-life of LEV in humans was simulated in the in vitro system by stepwise dilution of the growth medium. Results and Discussion: An HPLC-fluorescence method was developed and fully validated to quantify MXF in biological fluids. A method was also validated to determine LEV in the samples. Plasma and prostate concentrations of both drugs were simultaneously fitted using a three-compartment model considering linear (passive diffusion) and saturable transport (Michaelis-Menten kinetics), suggesting the presence of efflux transporters in the prostate. The average tissue penetration of MXF in the prostate was significantly higher than that of LEV (fT = 1.24 vs. 0.78) and was independent of the dose. In rats, differences in average plasma half-life between plasma LEV (5.0 h) and MXF (4.9 h) were not observed, even though the tissue half-life was slightly longer for MXF (3.3 vs. 2.3 h). Using a population PK/PD modeling approach, a sigmoidal Emax model was used to describe the effect of the two quinolones against E. coli both in the static as well as in the dynamic time-kill curves. Comparison of the PK/PD parameter estimates showed that the in vitro potency of MXF is higher than LEV against the strain tested as shown by EC50 values, but both presented equivalent efficacy (Emax of 1.85 and 1.83 h-1 for MXF and LEV, respectively). For LEV, the dosing regimens of 500 mg q12 h and 1,000 mg q24 h showed overall greater efficacy over the 24 h period as they resulted in complete inhibition of bacterial regrowth observed in the other two dosing regimens tested. Conclusions: The correlation of in vivo pharmacokinetic data with in vitro pharmacodynamic experiments, followed by the development of an Emax PK/PD model, allowed determining the relationship between the bactericidal effect as a function of time based on free tissue concentrations expected in the site of infection.

This panel from East Tennessee State University (ETSU) shared a wide variety of opportunities and challenges in moving well-established face-to-face programs to fully online delivery formats. The panel represented a rich history of professional experience and teaching in higher education administration, PK-12 administration, and program development and marketing. Originally scheduled as a roundtable discussion, the presentation was moved to a breakout session and was well-attended. Panel members shared discussion, comments, and audience questions. Content proximal to the presentation focused on four areas involved in the collaborative move to an online delivery of a doctoral program: Notification, Development, Approval, and Implementation. However, audience participation drove discussions into areas of adult learning constructs, tuition, accreditation, and much more. Notification as a central topic was a review of the political and historical perspectives leading to ETSU’s program change when the Tennessee Board of Regents (TBR) announced a state-level initiative to move programs to online formats. ETSU had a fortyyear history of delivering a strong and well-respected Doctor of Education program, but. as the state-level movement continued, it was clear that ETSU would lead the way with its program. Development was the process of moving a rigorous program from the classroom to a fully online program. During this phase additional instructors were hired and resources were provided for training and curriculum change to accommodate non-traditional delivery models. Because of the state support and interest in moving this project, the program change occurred over an amazingly short time frame — approximately eight months. Approval as a phase occurred in concert with development as course work had to meet online guidelines and many courses were reviewed through processes in the department of educational technology. Approval phase issues also addressed accreditation issues pertaining to the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools requiring online courses to retain rigor and be equivalent in content to the same or similar course delivered in a traditional construct. Implementation emerged as a review of the issues and opportunities of practical change in delivery models. As we all have experienced, no amount of training or preparation can remove the classroom moment of loss of connectivity or the inherent difficulties of getting students comfortable with using tools in a virtual environment. Questions from the audience moved panel participants into discussions of the wide variety of university resources for graduate students in online programs, including but not limited to a myriad of library resources, technology help resources, and lower tuition rates through an online consortium that allows online students to have access to in-state tuition rates. In the panel dialogue with the audience, it appeared that the ETSU program migration, though swift, was very thorough. One area that seemed to engage all was a possibility of moving toward strengthening culture in online programming through resources for family members of graduate students in online programming.

Contexte: L’insuffisance cardiaque (IC) est un syndrome clinique complexe regroupant un large spectre de mécanismes pathologiques qui peuvent altérer le fonctionnement de multiples organes, affectant ainsi la pharmacocinétique (PK) des médicaments. La modélisation pharmacocinétique de population (Pop-PK) consiste à appliquer des modèles non linéaires à effets mixtes dans le but de décrire l’exposition au traitement et quantifier la variabilité au niveau des paramètres PK. Objectif: Ce travail vise à évaluer par approche populationnelle la PK du candesartan en IC et à déterminer les covariables décrivant d’une façon statistiquement et cliniquement significative la variabilité au niveau de la clairance. Méthodes: Les données d’une étude pharmacogénomique ouverte, multicentrique et prospective ont été récupérées pour amorcer notre analyse. Le processus de modélisation et les simulations nécessaires sont réalisés à l’aide du logiciel NONMEM (Nonlinear Mixed Effects Modeling). Les covariables préliminaires ont été sélectionnées par des tests statistiques tels que la régression linéaire et l’ANOVA. Enfin, l’élaboration du modèle final est effectuée en utilisant le processus de sélection séquentielle « forward/backward ». Résultats: Un total de 281 patients caucasiens ont été inclus pour développer le modèle Pop-PK. Les données du candesartan ont été caractérisées par un modèle à un compartiment avec absorption de premier ordre et temps de latence. Le poids, l'âge, la fraction N-terminale du pro-peptide natriurétique de type b (NT_proBNP), le débit de filtration glomérulaire (DFG), le diabète, l'utilisation du furosémide et le sexe étaient les covariables sélectionnées préliminairement pour la clairance apparente (CL/F). Le modèle final développé pour la clairance apparente est représenté par l'équation suivante : CL/F (L/h) = 8.63*(Poids/82.45)0.963 * (DFG/74)0.56 * (0.682) Diabète * EXP0.138 Les simulations ont révélé qu'une diminution importante de la clairance orale (diminution de plus que 25 %) est obtenue en combinant les facteurs significatifs retenus dans le modèle final (patients ayant un faible poids corporel avec une insuffisance rénale modérée à sévère et patients diabétiques avec une insuffisance rénale faible à modérée). Nous avons constaté que les patients ayant ces combinaisons dans notre base de données présentaient des concentrations comparables à celles des autres patients malgré qu’ils aient toléré de plus faibles doses pendant la titration. Conclusion: La modélisation PK de population a servi comme une approche efficace pour caractériser la PK du candesartan en IC et pour identifier une sous-population à risque d’une exposition élevée. Le poids, le DFG et le diabète sont des prédicteurs indépendants de la clairance du candesartan en IC. Considérant ces facteurs, une approche plus individualisée de l'administration du candesartan est nécessaire chez les patients atteints d’IC. / Context: Heart failure (HF) is a clinical condition that causes pathological changes all over the body affecting hence the pharmacokinetic of drugs. Population pharmacokinetic modeling (Pop-PK) consists in applying non-linear mixed-effects models to characterize treatment exposure and quantify PK parameters variability. Objective: The aim of this study was to investigate the pharmacokinetic (PK) of candesartan in HF patients while examining statistically and clinically significant covariates on estimated clearance using population pharmacokinetics (Pop-PK) modeling approach. Methods: Data from a prospective, multicenter, open label, pharmacogenomic study were available for this analysis. Modeling and simulations were conducted using Nonlinear Mixed-Effect Modeling software NONMEM. Preliminary selection of covariates was accomplished with statistical tests (linear regression and ANOVA). Final model development was performed using forward/backward selection approach on the preliminarily selected covariates. Results: A total of 281 Caucasian patients were included to develop the Pop-PK model. Candesartan data were characterized by a 1 compartment model with first order absorption and lag time. Weight, age, N-terminal pro b-type natriuretic peptide (NT_proBNP), estimated glomerular filtration rate (eGFR), diabetes, use of furosemide and sex were the preliminarily selected covariates for apparent clearance (CL/F). The final model developed for apparent clearance is represented by the following equation: CL/F (L/h) = 8.63*(Weight/82.45)0.963 * (eGFR/74)0.56 * (0.682) Diabetes * EXP0.138 Simulations revealed that an important decrease in oral clearance (decrease of more than 25%) is obtained with the combination of the significant factors retained in the final model (patients having low weight with moderately to severely impaired renal function and diabetic with mildly to moderately impaired renal function). Patients having these combinations in our database were found to achieve comparable concentrations to the rest of patients despite tolerating only lower doses. Conclusion: Population pharmacokinetic modeling provided an effective approach to characterize the PK of candesartan in HF and to identify a subpopulation at potential risk of high exposure. Weight, eGFR and diabetes are independent predictors of candesartan clearance in patients with HF. Considering these factors, a more individualized approach of candesartan dosing is needed in HF patients.

A partir de 280 isolados fúngicos de cana-de-açúcar, 18 cepas foram avaliadas quanto á presença de genes da policetídeo sintase por meio da técnica do PCR. Estes fungos foram identificados taxonomicamente por uma abordagem polifásica, classificando-os dentro de quatro ordens e nove gêneros. A avaliação da atividade biológica demonstrou a presença de metabolitos com propriedades antibióticas quando enfrentados a micro-organismos patogênicos. Segundo a análise de correspondência múltipla, esta atividade poderia estar associada com a local de isolamento dos fungos. Foram detectadas 36 seqüências similares a genes PKS a partir de 17 destes fungos. A análise filogenética do domínio KS, conduzida pelo método de neighbor-joining, indicou que 16 seqüências se acomodaram dentro do grupo monofilético dos PKS envolvidos na produção de policetídeos não reduzidos e as outras 10 seqüências se acomodaram dentro do grupo monofilético dos PKS envolvidos na produção de policetídeos reduzidos. A análise do domínio CMT também apontou que as seqüências podiam se acomodaram em grupos de PKS dependendo do grau de redução do policetídeo, todas as seqüências CMT se relacionaram com PKS envolvidos na produção de policetídeos reduzidos. As análises dos modelos estruturais também demonstraram que as seqüências estavam altamente relacionadas com estruturas protéicas da família das enzimas de condensação, destacando a presença de uma hélice característica que carrega o resíduo de cisteína, responsável pela atividade de condensação. Extratos orgânicos obtidos de cultivos dos fungos foram avaliados parar detectar a presença de compostos tipo lovastatina. Por meio de cromatografia CCDS, detectaram-se bandas de 10 extratos com o mesmo deslocamento que a lovastatina padrão, mas apenas 6 destas foram confirmados por CLAE. O isolado A. flavus CBMAI 1023, foi selecionado para a realização de experimentos de produção a maior escala onde foi possível isolar e caracterizar um novo policetídeo. / From a group of 280 sugarcane-derived fungi 18 strains were assessed for the presence of polyketide synthase genes by PCR approaches. These fungi were identified taxonomically by a polyphasic approach classifying into four orders and nine genres. Biological activity tests showed the presence of antibiotic metabolites against pathogenic microorganisms and the relationship of this activity might be linked with the fungal isolate location by multiple correspondence analyses. 36 sequences similar to PKS genes fragments were detected from 17 of these fungi. A neighbor-joining phylogenetic analysis of the KS domain showed that 16 sequences fit on the monophyletic group of PKS evolved with production of non reduced polyketides, and the other 10 sequences fit on the monophyletic group of PKS evolved with the production of reduced polyketides. CMT domain analysis also pointed that the sequences fit with groups of PKS depending on polyketide reduction grade, all ten related to PKS evolved with the synthesis of reduced polyketides. Protein structural analysis also pointed out that these sequences are closely related with proteins from condensing enzyme family, highlighting the presence of a characteristic helix elbow that bears the cysteine residue responsible for the condensation activity. The fungi were also tested for their capacity of producing lovastatin compounds where chromatographic TLC detected bands from 10 extracts with the same dislocation compared to a lovastatin, but only 6 were confirmed by HPLC. The A. flavus CBMAI (1023) were selected for upscale production experiments, from where it was possible isolate and characterize a new polyketide compound.

Im Rahmen der Studien zur Wirkung von Bleinitrat auf die Embryonalstadien des afrikanischen Welses Clarias gariepinus wurde zunächst der Einfluß der Besamung auf den Härtungsprozess des Chorions untersucht, um die Bedeutung des gehärteten Chorions als Schutzfunktion im Hinblick auf Schadstoffeinwirkung zu klären. Das Studium der Embryonalentwicklung war erforderlich, um das Ausmaß der Änderung der Normalentwicklung unter dem Einfluß von Bleinitrat bewerten zu können. Im Rahmen der toxikologischen Untersuchungen der Wirkung des Bleinitrats auf die Embryonalstadien wurden folgende biologische Marker (Biomarker) betrachtet: Änderungen in der Entwicklung und der Schlüpfrate, morphologische und histologische Änderungen, sowie biochemische Veränderungen (Änderungen von Stoffwechsel-Enzymaktivitäten) und molekulare Veränderungen (Erfassung von DNA-Schädigungen). Die Exposition der besamten Eier mit Bleinitrat führte zu einer Verlängerung der Inkubationszeit und zu starken Mißbildungen. Der Rückgang der Häufigkeiten der Mißbildungen mit der Zeit ließ die Annahme zu, daß die mißgebildeten Embryonen starben. Im Gegensatz zu den morphologischen Mißbildungen wurden histopathologische Effekte nur bei Embryonen gefunden, die den höchsten Dosierungen (300 µg/l und 500 µg/l Bleinitrat) ausgesetzt waren. Nach dem Schlupf war das Muster der Enzymaktivitäten nach Exposition mit Bleinitrat uneinheitlich; die Aktivität von G6PDH nahm zu, die von LDH nahm ab und die von PK zeigte unregelmäßige Fluktuationen. Die Embryonalstadien zeigten signifikante Dosis-abhängige Antworten über die Zeit, da das Ausmaß der DNA-Schädigungen signifikant mit den Bleinitrat Konzentrationen anstieg. Vor dem Schlupf konnten bei den Embryonen nach Bleinitrat Exposition keine Änderungen in den Enzymaktivitäten gefunden werden und nur geringe DNA-Schädigungen, d.h die toxischen Effekte waren sehr gering. Eine Erklärung könnte die schützende Wirkung der Eihülle gegenüber Schadstoffen sein. Die gewählten Biomarker stellen sensitive Detektionsmethoden für Bleinitrat dar. So könnten sie sich als sinnvolle Bioindikatoren für Ägypten erweisen, da dort zunehmend Umweltverschmutzung mit Blei und Bleiakkumulation in Lebensmitteln zu verzeichnen ist. / In order to study the embryo-toxic effects of lead nitrate of the African catfish Clarias gariepinus, we first had to study the effect of fertilization on the hardening process of the chorion to clarify the role of the hardened chorion on the protection of the embryo from the pollutants. Also we had to study the embryonic development of C. gariepinus for providing us with a model for comparison when normal patterns of development are altered due the exposure to lead nitrate. The present toxicological work focuses on lead toxicity in different developmental stages of C. gariepinus considering different biological markers (biomarkers) comprising changes in the development and hatching rate, morphological and histological changes, biochemical changes (alteration of metabolic enzymes activity) and molecular changes (monitoring of DNA damage). Exposure of fertilized eggs to lead nitrate prolonged the incubation period and caused severe morphological malformations. Since the frequencies of the morphological malformations decreased with time, we conclude a lethal impact and selected mortality of abnormal embryos. Unlike the morphological malformation, histopathological changes were only recorded in embryos exposed to the highest dosages (300 µg/l and 500 µg/l lead nitrate). In the post-hatching stages, the patterns of the enzymes activities after lead exposure varied, G6PDH increased, LDH decreased and PK showed fluctuations. Embryonic stages revealed significant dose-related DNA damage response over time, since the degree of DNA damage increased significantly with higher lead concentrations. No specific response in the activities of the selected enzymes and low DNA damage were recorded in the pre-hatching stage after exposure to the lead nitrate doses. This means the lead nitrate had a minute toxic effect on the pre-hatched embryos. We conclude that, low susceptibility in pre-hatching stages is most probably a consequence of the chorion, which seems to protect the embryos from a range of external pollutants. The selected biomarkers were sensitive detection methods for low-level toxicity of lead nitrate. Thus, these are useful tools for biomonitoring, urgently required in Egypt with regard to increasing environmental deposition of lead and bioaccumulation in human food recently observed.

Cette thèse est consacrée à la modélisation mathématique de l'hématopoïèse et des maladies sanguines. Plusieurs modèles traitant d'aspects différents et complémentaires de l'hématopoïèse y sont étudiés.Tout d'abord, un modèle multi-échelle de l'érythropoïèse est analysé, dans lequel sont décrits à la fois le réseau intracellulaire, qui détermine le comportement individuel des cellules, et la dynamique des populations de cellules. En utilisant des données expérimentales sur les souris, nous évaluons les rôles des divers mécanismes de retro-contrôle en réponse aux situations de stress.Ensuite, nous tenons compte de la distribution spatiale des cellules dans la moelle osseuse, question qui n'avait pas été étudiée auparavant. Nous décrivons l'hématopoïèse normale à l'aide d'un système d'équations de réaction-diffusion-convection et nous démontrons l'existence d'une distribution stationnaire des cellules. Puis, nous introduisons dans le modèle les cellules malignes. Pour certaines valeurs des paramètres, la solution "disease-free" devient instable et une autre solution, qui correspond à la leucémie, apparaît. Cela mène à la formation d'une tumeur qui se propage dans la moelle osseuse comme une onde progressive. La vitesse de cette propagation est étudiée analytiquement et numériquement. Les cellules de la moelle osseuse échangent des signaux qui régulent le comportement cellulaire. Nous étudions ensuite une équation integro-différentielle qui décrit la communication cellulaire et nous prouvons l'existence d'une solution du type onde progressive en utilisant la théorie du degré topologique et la méthode de Leray et Schauder. L'approche multi-agent est utilisée afin d'étudier la distribution des différents types de cellules dans la moelle osseuse.Finalement, nous étudions un modèle de type "Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetics-Pharmacodynamics" du traitement de la leucémie par l'AraC. L'AraC agit comme chimiothérapie et induit l'apoptose de toutes les cellules proliférantes, saines et malignes. La pharmacocinétique donne accès à la concentration intracellulaire d'AraC. Cette dernière, à son tour, détermine la dynamique des populations cellulaires et, par conséquent, l'efficacité de différents protocoles de traitement. / This PhD thesis is devoted to mathematical modelling of haematopoiesis and blood diseases. We investigate several models, which deal with different and complementary aspects of haematopoiesis.The first part of the thesis concerns a multi-scale model of erythropoiesis where intracellular regulatory networks, which determine cell choice between self-renewal, differentiation and apoptosis, are coupled with dynamics of cell populations. Using experimental data on anemia in mice, we evaluate the roles of different feedback mechanisms in response to stress situations. At the next stage of modelling, spatial cell distribution in the bone marrow is taken into account, the question which has not been studied before. We describe normal haematopoiesis with a system of reaction-diffusion-convection equations and prove existence of a stationary cell distribution. We then introduce malignant cells into the model. For some parameter values the disease free solution becomes unstable and another one, which corresponds to leukaemia, appears. This leads to the formation of tumour which spreads in the bone marrow as a travelling wave. The speed of its propagation is studied analytically and numerically. Bone marrow cells exchange different signals that regulate cell behaviour. We study, next, an integro-differential equation which describes cell communication and prove the existence of travelling wave solutions using topological degree and the Leray-Schauder method. Individual based approach is used to study distribution of different cell types in the bone marrow. Finally, we investigate a Physiologically Based Pharmacokinetics-Pharmacodynamics model of leukaemia treatment with AraC drug. AraC acts as chemotherapy, inducing apoptosis of all proliferating cells, normal and malignant. Pharmacokinetics provides the evolution of intracellular AraC. This, in turn, determines cell population dynamics and, consequently, efficacy of treatment with different protocols.