In this article, the author introduces the main features and fundamentals of Private Law. Then, he makes a brief tour of the areas covered by private law within the system. Finally, through a comparison between the operation of private law and public law, the different logic to which each responds is emphasized. / En el presente artículo, el autor realiza una introducción a las principales características y fundamentos del Derecho Privado. Luego, hace un breve recorrido sobre las áreas que abarca el derecho privado dentro del ordenamiento. Finalmente, a través de una comparación entre el funcionamiento del derecho privado y del derecho público, se enfatiza la lógica distinta a la que cada uno responde.

O presente trabalho objetivou compreender o ‘elemento de empresa’ previsto no parágrafo único do artigo 966 do Código Civil Brasileiro, elemento este capaz de qualificar o exercício de profissões intelectuais de natureza científica, literária ou artística como empresário. Teve como premissa a unificação do Direito Privado pela empresa ante a ausência de fundamento científico a sustentar a dicotomia entre Civil e Comercial. Para se alcançar uma conclusão acerca do “elemento de empresa, foi necessária a análise legislativa de anteprojetos e projetos de lei do Código Civil Brasileiro e da Lei de Falências e de Recuperação de Empresas, de doutrina e de jurisprudência. Primeiramente verificamos que a Lei nr. 10.406/2002 tratou a empresa conforme o Código Civil Italiano de 1942, que não a define, mas sim, os elementos que a compõem: empresário ou sociedade empresária e estabelecimento. Daí porque, da combinação do empresário ou da sociedade empresária com o estabelecimento, nasceu o conceito de empresa de Miguel Reale, como sendo a habitualidade no exercício de negócios que visem a produção ou a circulação de bens ou de serviços, com resultado econômico, por meio de uma organização ou estrutura estável. A seguir nos debruçamos sobre a proposta do Código Civil quanto à divisão das sociedades em empresárias e não empresárias e, depois sobre o conteúdo e abrangência do ‘elemento de empresa’ previsto no parágrafo único do artigo 966, bem como sobre o suposto efeito dicotômico daquela divisão e dessa exclusão. O Código definiu as sociedades empresárias e previu os tipos societários que, independentemente da forma de exercício da atividade, não são consideradas empresárias, ou como também é usualmente nominado, são sociedades simples “lato senso”, pois ‘simples’ é o tipo característico das sociedades não empresárias por excelência. A denominação sociedade simples “stricto senso” define tipo societário tal qual a limitada ou a sociedade em nome coletivo. Afastou-se a possível compreensão de uma dicotomia, agora entre sociedades empresárias e não empresárias, pois que o ‘ente sociedade limitada’, por exemplo, compreendido na esfera sociedade empresarial está – concomitantemente – compreendido na esfera sociedade não-empresarial. No que tange ao ‘elemento de empresa’, tal expressão decorre da previsão do Codice de 1942 e, como tal, excluiu a atividade intelectual de natureza literária, artística e científica da qualidade empresarial e, assim como previsto no Codice, essas atividades não devem – isoladamente - ser reputadas empresariais. Quando associadas a uma atividade empresária, ou seja, quando forem um elemento desta outra atividade que é reputada empresária, a atividade intelectual torna-se empresarial. Finalmente foram analisadas as leis aditivas com intuito de se verificar os efeitos e aplicabilidade das novas disposições do Código de 2002 para então se concluir que, na aplicação da legislação tributária, a empresa e o ‘elemento de empresa’ não estão sendo concretizados de acordo com a proposta do Código Civil enquanto que em matéria falimentar estamos um passo à frente, seja porque a legislação falimentar é mais recente e, por isso, talvez mais madura na compreensão dos novos dispositivos do Código Civil, seja porque ainda não há tanta experiência sobre sua concretização. / The purpose of the paper is the understanding of the ‘corporate element’ as foreseen in the paragraph of article 966 of the Brazilian Civil Code, an element capable of qualifying the exercise of intellectual professions of scientific, literary, or artistic nature as a businessperson. Its premise was the unification of the Private Law by the corporation in face of the lack of scientific fundaments sustaining the dichotomy between Civil and Commercial. In order to attain a conclusion on the “corporate element”, a legislative analysis has been necessary, of parliamentary bills for the Brazilian Civil Code, and the Corporations Bankruptcy and Recovery Act, of doctrine and jurisprudence. Firstly we have ascertained that Act 10406/2002 has approached the corporation pursuant to the Italian Civil Code of 1942, which does not define it, but instead defines the elements that make it up: businessperson or corporate partnership and establishment. Hence, from the combination of the businessperson or the corporation with the establishment was born Miguel Reale’s concept of corporation, as being the habitual exercise of businesses that aim at the production or the circulation of goods or services with an economic result, by means of a stable organization or structure. Subsequently we approach the Civil Code’s proposal of dividing partnerships into corporate and noncorporate and, afterwards, on the contents and comprehension of the ‘corporate element’ foreseen in said paragraph of article 966, as well as on the supposed dichotomous effect of that division and this exclusion. The Code has defined corporate enterprises and has foreseen the corporate kinds that, irrelevant of the way of exercising the activity, are not deemed corporate ones, or as usually nominated, are simple corporations lato sensu, because ‘simple’ is the characteristic kind of those non-corporate partnerships par excellence. The denomination simple partnership stricto sensu defines a corporate kind such as the limited partnership or the partnership under collective name. The possible comprehension of a dichotomy, now between corporate and non-corporate partnerships, as the ‘limited partnership entity’, for instance, comprehended in the corporate partnership’s realm is – concomitantly – comprehended in the non-corporate partnership’s realm. Concerning the ‘corporate element’, such expression results from the provision of the 1942 Codice and, as such, it has excluded the intellectual activity of a literary, artistic, and scientific nature from the corporate quality, and as provided in the Codice, such activities should not – on their own – be reputed as corporate ones. When associated to a corporate activity, that is, when they are an element of that other activity which is reputed to be corporate, the intellectual activity becomes a corporate one. Finally, the additive legal acts have been analyzed with the purpose of verifying the effects and the applicability of the new provision of the 2002 Code, and then to conclude that by applying the taxation law, the corporation and the ‘corporate element’ are not being achieved in accordance with the Civil Code’s proposal, while in bankruptcy matters we are one step forward, both for the bankruptcy law being more recent, and for such maybe more mature in the understanding of the new provisions of the Civil Code, or because there is still not enough experience on its achievement.

No Direito Romano, a proteção da propriedade e a prova de sua titularidade era realizada através de ações, face à inexistência de um sistema de Registro de Imóveis. O direito de propriedade era extremamente individualista e patrimonialista. Com o feudalismo, a diferença entre o privado e o público começa a esmorecer. Surgem as codificações, na crença de que o Código seria um feixe infalível de hipóteses jurídicas que traria segurança jurídica. Com o tempo, o dogma da completude se tornou uma utopia. A descodificação é consequência direta. A Constituição Federal passa a regular os direitos inerentes à justiça, segurança, liberdade, igualdade, propriedade e herança, que antes estavam no Código Civil. A constitucionalização do direito privado surge com uma nova proposta de interpretações sistemáticas das leis, sempre à luz da Constituição. A propriedade sofre as influências de uma Constituição Federal mais voltada para o social, que impõe ao proprietário o atendimento à função social da propriedade. O atendimento à função social da propriedade também se dá pelo atendimento da legislação ambiental, naquilo que se denominou de função sócio-ambiental da propriedade. O Registro de Imóveis é instituído no Brasil e passa a gerar publicidade, autenticidade, segurança e eficácia dos atos jurídicos, transformando-se no sistema guardião da propriedade dos imóveis. O meio ambiente ecologicamente equilibrado e a sadia qualidade de vida passam a ser direitos fundamentais do cidadão e sua defesa e proteção cabe ao Poder Público e à coletividade. Após o Código de Defesa do Consumidor, o bem ambiental passou a ter natureza difusa, transindividual e pertencente à coletividade, fazendo do Poder Público seu mero gestor. Hodiernamente, na pós-modernidade, a informação é sinônimo de poder. A publicização de direitos é uma tendência da pós-modernidade. O direito ambiental tem, no Registro de Imóveis, um aliado na prevenção de litígios e na proteção ambiental. Os institutos de direito ambiental, que visam proteger o meio ambiente, tais como as unidades de conservação, necessitam da publicidade que o Registro de Imóveis oportuniza, através da averbação das restrições ambientais na matrícula do imóvel, para obter a publicidade e a segurança jurídica necessárias e prevenir o uso nocivo da propriedade. O Registro de Imóveis assume uma nova dimensão, como um instrumento de proteção ambiental. / In Roman law the protection of property and evidence of its ownership was achieved through actions in the absence of a system of Property Registry. The right of ownership was highly individualistic and patrimonial. In feudalism the difference between private and public begins to falter. Encodings arise in the belief that the Code would be a beam infallible legal assumptions that would bring legal certainty. Over time the doctrine of completeness has become a utopia. The decoding is a direct consequence. The Federal Constitution is to regulate the rights inherent in justice, security, freedom, equality, property and inheritance that were previously in the Civil Code. The constitutionalization of private law emerges with a new proposal for a systematic interpretation of the law where the light of the Constitution. The property suffers the effects of a Federal Constitution more focused on the social, which requires the owner to attendance the social function of property. The attendance to the social function of property is also given for the care of environmental legislation, in what was termed the socio-environmental function of property. The Property Registry is hereby established in Brazil and comes to generating publicity, authenticity, safety and efficacy of legal acts, becoming the guardian system of ownership of property. The ecologically balanced and healthy quality of life become the rights of the citizen and his defense and protection rests with the Government and the community. After the Code of Consumer Protection, the environmental goods started to have diffuse nature, transindividual belonging to the community, making the Government its mere manager. In our times, in postmodernity, the information is synonymous with power. The publicity of rights is a tendency of post-modernity. Environmental law has, in the Property Registry, an ally in preventing disputes and environmental protection. The institutes of environmental law meant to protect the environment, such as conservation areas, they need the publicity the Property Registry provides an opportunity through the registration of environmental restrictions on registration of property, to get publicity and legal certainty and prevent harmful use of property. The Property Registry assumes a new dimension, as an instrument of environmental protection.

Com a entrada em vigor do novo Código Civil, Lei n. 10.406, de 10 de janeiro de 2002, as cláusulas gerais passaram a ocupar papel de destaque no ordenamento jurídico brasileiro, em especial no direito privado. Observamos, todavia, que pouca relação tiveram as referidas cláusulas com o direito tributário, restando imperiosa uma análise dogmática objetivando esclarecer os limites dos operadores do direito no manuseio de instrumentos que arejam o sistema jurídico. Dispositivos legais como os da função social dos contratos, do abuso do direito e da fraude à lei foram consagrados fazendo necessário um exame dos métodos mais adequados para a interpretação dessa espécie normativa e principais efeitos tributários. Tenta-se ainda demonstrar que o exame da causa no negócio jurídico é tema central para a interpretação dos negócios jurídicos de direito privado que exercem influência sobre o tema da tributação. / The following work has the prime aim to investigate and to formulate conclusions on the relation between the Brazilian tax system and the Brazilian Civil Code. For about a century, starting perhaps around 1870, changes in political thought, in social and economic conditions, and in the law, began to take place at an ever-increasing pace. After the age o freedom of contract (perhaps best placed in the century between 1770 and 1870) it is not hard to identify a period of gradual decline in belief of freedom of contract. These developments during this period represented to some degree a reversion to older traditions which pre-dated the age of individualism and freedom of contract, but has equally influenced the elaboration of the Brazilian Civil Code, which came into force on 2002. There we can clearly see the freedom of the contract limited by the principal of the social destination of contract, and other general clauses such as the abuse of rights and the civil fraud. The following work intends to investigate how these specific articles of the Brazilian Civil Code influences the legal obligation to pay taxes and the freedom to make tax planning\'s.

A doutrina costuma apontar como efeitos dos fatos jurídicos a criação, a modificação ou a extinção de relações jurídicas. Os textos doutrinários normalmente desenvolvem o estudo dos fatos jurídicos que criam relações jurídicas; o presente trabalho, porém, se dedica aos fatos jurídicos tendentes a modificar relações jurídicas anteriormente criadas, restringindo-se ao campo das obrigações. Primeiramente, deve-se buscar um critério: modificação do direito isolado ou da relação jurídica? Como nas relações jurídicas complexas há diversos direitos e deveres recíprocos, a extinção de um direito pode levar apenas à modificação da relação jurídica integralmente considerada. Se Savigny já entendia que um juízo acerca do direito só pode ser verdadeiro quando fundado na compreensão completa da relação jurídica, hoje há renovadas razões para que se adote um critério relacional: a relação obrigacional tem sido vista como um processo, o que leva a um reforço de sua identidade com a inclusão de um elemento finalístico. As ideias de modificação e identidade estão vinculadas, pois, se a \"modificação\" leva à perda da identidade, a relação jurídica na verdade foi extinta. Quanto ao tema das modificações, a maior parte da doutrina parece tratar apenas da \"transmissão das obrigações\". Outros, ao lado dessas modificações subjetivas, tratam de modificações objetivas, normalmente restringindo-se às efetuadas por negócio jurídico. A classificação de Pontes de Miranda, porém, parece servir de referencial para o presente trabalho: quanto às modificações \"sem quebra da identidade da relação jurídica\", o autor aponta modificações negociais, alterações por dolo e culpa, por força maior e caso fortuito, por impossibilidade de adimplemento e, por fim, por mora do devedor e do credor. / Current legal theory generally considers the effects of legal facts (those resulting from the correlation between facts and norms) on the creation, modification or termination of legal relationships. While most authors addresses how legal facts create these relationships, the present study is devoted to legal facts tending to modify the legal relationship, particularly in the field of the Law of Obligations (duty to perform). At first, a criterion must be determined: modification of the isolated right or modification of the Obligation? In \"complex\" obligational relationships, there are many mutual rights and duties, such that the extinction of a right can result only in the modification of the relationship fully considered. Long ago, Savigny asserted that a reasonable analysis of a right must be based on a thorough understanding of the legal relationship at issue. There are now renewed reasons to adopt these relational criteria when analyzing legal relationships. The obligational relationship may be seen as a process, which leads to the reinforcement of its identity with the inclusion of a finalistic element. The ideas of modification and identity are linked, because if a \"change\" leads to the loss of identity, the legal relationship may, in fact, have been terminated. Most of the authors on the subject of modifications addresses the \"transfer of obligations\". Some other studies, beside these subjective modifications, addresses objective modifications, usually restricted to those made by agreement. The \"Pontes de Miranda\" classification, may serve as a useful reference when analyzing the issue of modifications. The author points to modifications by agreement, changes by dolus and culpa (fault, tort law and breach of contract), by force majeure or unforeseeable circumstances, impossibility of performance, and, ultimately, by the mora debitoris and mora creditoris/accipiendi (default, delay of performance) as modifications \"without breaking the identity of the legal relationship\".

La prescription extinctive a fait l’objet de nombreuses études en droit privé ou en droit pénal. Elle constitue à l’inverse un angle mort de la recherche en droit public. La réforme opérée en matière civile par la loi du 17 juin 2008, ainsi que le renouveau contemporain du débat sur l’existence d’une théorie générale des obligations publiques, justifient pourtant une analyse approfondie en droit public. Prenant ses racines dans le Code civil, la prescription extinctive tient une place non négligeable dans les rapports obligataires des personnes publiques. La multiplication des prescriptions propres au droit public, notamment en raison d’impératifs budgétaires, oblige toutefois à identifier ce qu’elle recouvre précisément. Fondée sur la sécurité juridique, elle se distingue d’autres mécanismes similaires en emportant l’extinction de l’exigibilité de l’obligation. De ce fait, elle connaît un essor important et s’étend à la plupart des obligations publiques, même si elle doit être conciliée avec la nécessité d’intérêt général d’obtenir le paiement des obligations.Si la prescription extinctive existe bien en droit public, elle a toutefois été adaptée aux caractéristiques propres de cette matière. Bien que le Code civil ait longtemps imposé le recours aux règles du droit privé, le juge administratif n’en avait pas moins conservé une certaine autonomie. En supprimant l’application du droit privé aux rapports obligataires des personnes publiques, la réforme du 17 juin 2008 a rendu le droit public de la prescription autonome. Cette autonomie devrait néanmoins être consolidée par la voie d’une réforme législative, réorganisant les prescriptions disparates, et comblant les lacunes existantes. Une telle intervention serait également l’occasion de constater l’originalité de la prescription extinctive en droit public. Son fonctionnement (point de départ, suspension, interruption, opposition, renonciation, etc.) reste gouverné par de nombreuses spécificités dues à la double appartenance de la prescription aux règles de la légalité administrative et financière. Elle souligne en définitive l’irréductible spécificité du droit public. / Extinctive prescription has been the subject of numerous studies both in public and private laws. In contrast it is a dead angle in Public Law research. The reform put in place in the civil domain by the June 17, 2008 Act, as well as a renewed interest in the debate about the existence of a general theory of public obligations, warrant a deep analysis. Having its roots in the civil code, the extinctive prescription holds an important place among the contractual or legal relationship of public persons. The significant increase of prescriptions specific to public law, partly due to budgetary need, however requires identifying what it exactly entails. Based on legal certainty, it differs from other mechanisms that are close to it, by leading to the termination of liability for payment. Hence, it sees a significant expansion and now extends to most public obligations, even though it has to be reconciled with the need of general interest to get payment of obligations.If the extinctive prescription does exist in public law, it has however been adapted to the inherent characteristics of this subject. Even though the Civil Code has imposed the use of private law rules for long, the administrative judge had retained some autonomy. By removing the use of private law from contractual or legal relationship of public persons, the June 17, 2008 reform has made prescription in public law independent. This autonomy should be enhanced through a legislative reform, both reorganizing the existing prescriptions and filling existing gaps. Such intervention would be an opportunity to observe the originality of extinctive prescription in public law. Its operation (starting point, suspension, interruption, waiver, etc.) remains governed by numerous characteristics due to dual ownership of prescription to the rules of administrative and financial legality. It eventually highlights the undeniable specificity of public law.

L’amitié en droit privé est un sujet qui peut surprendre, par sa teinte oxymorique. L’amitié, situation de fait et relation informelle, semble très peu juridique. Elle peut désigner des formes d’intimité différentes, qui représentent des degrés d’amitié, pouvant soulever des problèmes juridiques différents. Cette nature polysémique, conjuguée à la difficulté d’identification d’un phénomène factuel et fugace rendent toute tentative de définition de l’amitié stérile. De ce fait, toute approche notionnelle comme normative est inaccessible. Pourtant, le droit n’ignore pas l’amitié. Il la redoute mais la protège également. L’intérêt de l’étude est de démontrer comment le droit s’accommode de l’absence de définition de ce phénomène pour lui offrir une place. Une approche fractionnée, en fonction des enjeux soulevés, permet au droit d’appréhender l’amitié dans chacune de ses formes, de l’amitié utilitariste à l’amitié durable et stable, sans avoir besoin d’une définition générale et abstraite. Cette approche téléologique permet également de laisser à l’amitié un domaine de liberté car l’appréhension de l’amitié nécessite de prendre en considération le libre choix qui la caractérise. Elle ne peut donc être saisie uniquement par une norme impérative. L’appréhension juridique de l’amitié contourne l’écueil de sa définition par un subtil équilibre entre norme, contrat et juge. Le droit privé dépasse tout ce qui semblait être rédhibitoire à première vue et qui rendait cette interaction presque inconcevable. C’est là sans doute la réelle originalité de cette interaction : au-delà du dépassement de la nécessité d’une définition juridique, l’amitié a sa place en droit privé / Friendship is one of the most important social institutions : it binds society together. Yet, we could wonder what the law has to do with it. It seems impossible to define friendship, and the law needs a definition to identify a relationship. However, private law does not ignore friendship. The law copes with it about partiality, about conflicts of interests and about several misdeneanors. Law fears friendship as it may change the balance of interests protected by law. It also happens in Contract law, when friendship is the reason of binding. On the other side, law has to protect friendship, as it is important for the personal development. Friendship is included in protection of privacy by the European Court of Human Right. Friendship is also protected because it can be useful to take care for individual interests, especially when family collapses. Thus, a friend can give an organ to save his friend, he can relay his friend’s will when he is unabled. Friendship do matter in Private Law, even if it cannot be precisely defined. It could even have more legal attention in the future. The real point of the study is to show how the law can deal with this lack of legal definition, and manage to apprehend friendship

Malgré son organisation d’inspiration libérale, la profession de médecin accepte depuis longtemps l’exercice sous forme illibérale. Ce mode d’exercice médical concerne tous les médecins, aujourd’hui nombreux, exerçant leur art au profit et pour le compte d’un employeur public ou privé. Il présente la particularité d’être organisé selon une bipartition théorique faisant la différence entre les médecins dont l’exercice est soumis au droit public, et ceux dont l’exercice relève du droit privé. L’organisation de l’exercice médical subordonné reprend en effet le schéma selon lequel les agents publics doivent être distingués des salariés de droit privé, conséquence de la dualité droit public/droit privé qui caractérise le système juridique français. Cependant, tout comme la différenciation entre les agents publics et les salariés de droit privé s’est affaiblie, celle existant en théorie entre les médecins illibéraux de droit public et les médecins illibéraux de droit privé a perdu de sa pertinence, tant ces deux catégories de professionnels se sont rapprochées, liées en pratique par une même notion : la subordination. Les différentes branches du droit applicables aux médecins illibéraux ont été réciproquement attirées les unes par les autres et ont évolué par des mécanismes d’emprunts mutuels. Ce mouvement d’attraction, dont le développement a fait naître un mode d’exercice médical illibéral uniformisé, marque l’abolition de la distinction entre médecine subordonnée de droit public et médecine subordonnée de droit privé / Despite being organized on a liberal inspiration, the medical profession can be practiced through a subordinate relationship. This way of practicing the medical profession includes every doctor who fulfills his professional duties in the profit and for a public or private employer. It is unique by its organization, according to a theoretical division making the difference between doctors ruled by public laws, and doctors who practice under private laws. It follows a particular scheme, in which civil servants are differenciated from salaried employees ruled by private laws, a direct result, typical of the french legal system, of the traditional duality between public and private law.However, like the differenciation between civil servants and salaried employees ruled by private laws, which has lost most of its strongness, the separation between subordinate doctors ruled by public laws and subordinate doctors ruled by private laws is not relevant anymore, because these two types of doctors, linked by one key concept, the subordination, have kept getting closer over time. The different rules that apply to the subordinate doctors have reach out to each other and have progressed with mutual borrowings. These attraction moves have created a homogeneous medical practice, by erasing the differences between subordinate doctors ruled by public laws and those who are governed by private laws

Memoria (licenciado en ciencias jurídicas y sociales) / No autorizada por el autor para ser publicada a texto completo / Esta tesis consiste en la traducción del libro La Idea del Derecho Privado del profesor Ernest J. Weinrib al español la cual será publicada en nuestro país ya que cuenta con la autorización de su autor. Con esta traducción se prentende dar una herramienta mas a los estudiantes de derecho a la hora de hacer sus primeros estudios del derecho privado. El derecho privado es un fenómeno familiar y penetrante, que aplica nuestras más profundas intuiciones sobre responsabilidad personal y justicia a la propiedad que usamos y de la que somos dueños, a las lesiones que causamos o evitamos causar y a los contratos que celebramos o incumplimos. La Idea del Derecho Privado ofrece una nueva forma de entender este fenómeno. Al rechazar el funcionalismo tan popular entre la doctrina Ernest Weinrib avanza la idea provocativa que el derecho privado es una practica autónoma y no-instrumental con su propia estructura y racionalidad.

International Private Law has gone through several changes and modifications, in step with the globalization phenomenon, for whichthe  relations  between  citizens of  different countries have become more frequent and complex. In that regard, it is necessary to ask how International Private Law should react tobe in accordance with the new scenarios.In this article, the author examines the general and patrimonial aspects of International Private Law that he considers must be redefined, comparing the current dispositions of the Peruvian Civil Code with international regulations and national reform projects, and introducing a modification proposal for each topic. / El Derecho Internacional Privado ha venidosufriendo diversos cambios y modificaciones, al ritmo del fenómeno de la globalización, porel cual las relaciones entre los ciudadanos dediversos países se han ido haciendo más frecuentes y complejas. En ese sentido, es necesario  preguntarse  cómo  debe reaccionar el Derecho Internacional Privado para estaracorde a los nuevos escenarios.En el presente artículo, el autor hace un recorrido por los aspectos generales y patrimoniales del Derecho Internacional Privado que considera deben ser replanteados, comparando las normas del Código Civil vigentes con las normas internacionales y los proyectos de reforma nacionales, y presentando para cadatema una propuesta de modificación.