住宅開發型態之決定，除考量住宅市場的需求外，尚需考量土地市場的供給。在臺北市單筆土地面積偏小之情況下，開發者若欲進行開發，整合土地之能力將成為影響開發規模之重要因素。然而，土地之產權型態、地主行為及偏好等因素，將影響開發者的整合成本。開發者往往因基地面積之限制而變更設計，甚或放棄開發。再者，影響住宅供給之重要因素除基地面積外，亦與開發強度息息相關。因此，在土地稀少、產權複雜或地價較高之地區，開發者應會增加單位土地的資本投入量以實現規模經濟。此外，在現行法規下，開發案若符合特定標準，即可申請政策性容積獎勵，使開發強度得以超過法定容積率之限制，進而影響最終之住宅開發型態與供給數量。為印證以上之推論，本研究以臺北市民國83年至104年第三種住宅區新建住宅之使用執造為基礎，建立開發個案之資料庫。先以敘述統計及地域型空間自相關分析開發型態，結果顯示：臺北市各行政區住宅開發型態各異，且產生空間聚集之情況。整體來看，市區主要為小基地、高容積之開發型態；而郊區開發量體較大，且偏向大基地、低容積之開發型態。 再者，本研究以多元線性迴歸模型探討影響基地面積與實際容積率之因素。實證結果顯示：影響住宅基地規模之關鍵為產權條件與整合因素，且市場中的確出現土地與資本替代的情形；而政策性容積獎勵增加了替代之彈性，亦可能降低土地整合之需要。此外，為了更深入了解產權條件與開發型態間之關聯，本研究進一步將臺北市十二個行政區劃分為原單筆土地面積較小之「產權複雜區」及原單筆土地面積較大之「產權單純區」，與實際開發案之土地筆數、面積及實際容積率進行交叉分析。結果指出：相對於產權單純之地區，產權複雜地區的開發土地面積較小，且開發者將更加強土地利用之強度，使建案呈現小基地、高容積之垂直發展型態。本研究之實證結果可以印證：產權複雜增加土地整合之成本，因此開發者需透過加強土地利用，增加經濟樓高，以達土地使用之規模經濟。而若欲擴大資本開發規模，與其進行成本較高之土地整合，開發者將傾向申請政策性容積獎勵。 / The pattern of housing development is decided by the needs of the housing market, as well as the supply of land. The plots in Taipei are overall small in size. Thus for developers, land assembly is an important factor that affects the development scale. Property rights, landlord behavior and preferences will affect the cost of land assembly, and force the developers to change design or even give up development due to the constraint of building sites size. Furthermore, important factors of the housing supply not only include the size of building sites, but also the building density. In areas where the land supply is inelastic, land prices tend to be high or property rights are complex, developers will therefore need to increase the amount of capital investment per unit of land in order to achieve economies of scale. In addition, if development projects meet certain requirements, developers can apply for floor area bonus that enable the building density to exceed the original legal limit of the floor-to-site ratio, thereby affecting the development patterns and the amount of housing supply. To verify these arguments, this study established a database of housing projects based on residential usage licenses from 1994 to 2015, and then used descriptive statistics and local spatial autocorrelation statistics to analyze housing development patterns. Results showed that development patterns varied from district to district and presented spatial clustering. On the whole, the site size was small and the building density was high in downtown area. In contrast the site size in the suburbs was relatively big, the building density was comparatively low and the amount of development was large. Furthermore, this study used regression models to explore factors affecting the size of building sites and the building density. The results showed that the key factors affecting the size of building sites were property rights and land assembly. Moreover, substitution between land and capital does occur. Nevertheless, floor area bonus increased the elasticity of substitution, and sometimes also reduced the incentive for land assembly. In order to better understand the correlation between property rights and development patterns, this study divided the twelve administrative districts of Taipei into "complex property areas" where individual plots were small, and "simple property areas" where individual plots were big, then analyzed the site size, number of land parcels and building density. The results pointed out that compared with the "simple property area", the site size was relatively small in the "complex property area", and developers would raise the intensity of land use. In consequence, buildings in "complex property area" tended to be on small sites with high density. The empirical results of this study suggested that complex property rights increased the cost of land assembly, and that led developers to increase the building density in order to achieve economies of scale of land use. However, if developers wish to create more floor areas, they tended to apply for floor area bonus rather than choose the costly land assembly.

Droit de propriété et liberté contractuelle fondent le droit pour tout propriétaire de choisir la personne à laquelle il souhaite, le cas échéant, vendre son bien. Il est pourtant des hypothèses où le législateur a accordé d’autorité à certaines personnes un droit de préemption qui leur permet d’être préférées à d’autres lors de la conclusion du contrat de vente. Cela étant, le droit de préemption demeure une institution mal connue et discutée. En effet, le législateur a institué de très nombreux droits de préemption en fonction de ses ambitions politiques, en dotant chacun d’eux d’un régime juridique spécifique. Le fait qu’il ne se soit guère préoccupé de conférer une quelconque cohérence à cet ensemble génère de nombreux conflits entre droits de préemption ou entre un droit de préemption et une autre institution juridique. Par ailleurs, l’intérêt général qui justifie le droit de préemption et exige que le domaine de celui-ci soit cantonné au strict nécessaire ainsi que l’octroi de garanties aux personnes concernées, ne dissuade pas le législateur de renforcer constamment l’emprise de cette institution. Ces données, qui illustrent les finalités du droit de préemption, influencent nécessairement la notion. Elles conduisent en effet à considérer que la prestation attendue du vendeur, à savoir proposer par priorité l’acquisition de son bien au bénéficiaire, constitue l’essence du droit de préemption. Le régime et l’effectivité de tous les droits de préemption reposent sur cette prestation. Il est alors possible de suggérer une nouvelle définition du droit de préemption et d’établir sa nature juridique à partir du droit des biens. Deux critères de délimitation du droit de préemption peuvent également être proposés, le premier reposant sur sa source légale, le second résultant de la détermination du moment de son intervention, ce qui n’est pas sans conséquence pratique. / Property right (jus proprietatis) and contractual freedom establish the right for every owner to choose the person to whom he may wish to sell his property. There are nevertheless hypotheses where the legislator granted to some persons, by his own authority, a right of pre-emption which allows them to be preferred to others when concluding the sale contract. Right of preemption remains, however, a badly known and controversial institution, as the legislator established a very great quantity of rights of preemption, according to his political ambitions, and endowed each of these rights of a specific legal regime. The fact that he hardly worried to confer on them any coherence generates many conflicts between rights of preemption, or between a right of preemption and another legal institution. Besides, general interest, which justifies right of preemption and requires that its domain be limited to strict minimum as well as the guarantees granted to the concerned persons, does not dissuade the legislator to strengthen constantly the influence of this institution. These data, which illustrate the purposes of right of preemption, do inevitably influence its notion : indeed, they lead to consider that the service expected from the seller, which is to propose by priority the acquisition of his property to the beneficiary, is constituting the basis of right of preemption. The regime and the effectiveness of all the rights of preemption are based upon that service. It becomes then possible to suggest a new definition of right of preemption and to establish its legal nature from property right. Two criteria of delimitation of right of preemption can be also proposed, the first one resting on its legal source, the second resulting from the determination of the moment of its intervention, which is not without practical consequence.

臺灣水資源多年來供不應求的問題，由於供給面管理已面臨瓶頸，不得不尋求以強調經濟誘因，效率使用為理念的需求面管理。水權交易制度是需求面管理政策中最符合價格機能運作的制度，本文由臺灣的水資源財產權演進的歷史，以及理論模型的推導，加上既有文獻的探討，和國外施行的經驗，認為此制度確實可行。它的優點是讓用水者面對真實的機會成本，可以增加用水效率，除此之外，還可分散缺水風險，使分配更具彈性，反應留川使用效益的公共價值，並且可以顧及公平性和增進整體社會福利。雖然此制度有其缺陷，但是藉制度的設計，政府適當的管制，應可克服這些問題。 　　國內現行的水利法不允許水權自由交易，其中充滿政府管制色彩。在制定之初幾乎不顧及經濟法則，但是隨著由供需主導的經濟力量，例如嘉南平原水權之爭，已迫使水利法的修正，允許需由政府核准的附帶補償的移轉，這新增條文的精神已離自由交易不遠。不過由各種跡象顯示，政府對水資源的管理態度將更強調對水資源調配的主控權，但是此主控權的行使，四十年以來一直拋不開各種包袱，在未來也很難相信主管機關能做到社會最適的調配。 　　本文所提出的理論模型，是為了做政策上的選擇。參考Baumol and Oates(1988)，徐世勳（民國80年），蕭代基（民國81年）等的模型架構，將留川及離川使用交互影響的關係，以及污染排放因素模型化。並討論在確定及不確定下的政策選擇，比較Pareto最適條件及市場均衡條件，在水量方面，主要是是探討水權費及水權交易制度，在水質方面，比較污染排放稅和可轉讓污染染排放許可證。論文結果發現，在確定情況下，上述政策無差異。在供給函數不確定下，應採水權交易制度和污染排放稅。本文最後提出政策建議，以集水區地方自治組織，來輔助市場交易，以及外部效果內部化工作。本文目的除了在財產權歷史和理論上做進一步探討，也希望提供臺灣成立水權交易制度政策上的參考。

過去的文獻成功地運用不完全契約，解釋低資本密集的產業偏向採用外包合作而非垂直整合。然而，不完全契約理論卻忽略外包接單廠商自身的研發行為，尤其是在接單競爭被強化時。因此，我們延伸不完全契約模型，發現若接單廠商身處越資本密集的產業，越能從上游廠商奪取利潤，因此有更強的誘因從事研發活動。當接單競爭強化時，我們發現低資本密集的產業較不願意從事研發活動，甚至被市場淘汰，所以可以看到生產活動逐漸高資本密集的廠商或產業集中。另外我們利用計量模型驗證文章中的結論，並得到一致的結果。 / Previous study utilizes incomplete contracts theory to explains why industries with lower capital intensity adopt outsourcing policy instead of vertical integration. However, incomplete contracts is silent in explaining foreign supplier's R&D activities, especially when the competition is intensified. We extend the incomplete-contracting model, and discover that foreign supplier of higher capital intensity producer has a higher profit extracted from final-good producers. Such excess profit gives foreign supplier more incentive to engage in R&D activities. When competition is intensified, we also show that suppliers of less capital intensive producer spend less in R&D or may leave the market; therefore within an industry, factors are reallocated to suppliers of capital-intensive producers or toward suppliers in capital intensive industries. Econometric evidence we provide supports the prediction of the model.

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Magister Legum - LLM / Traditional Knowledge (TK) is the long standing wisdom, teachings and practices of indigenous communities which have been passed on orally, in the majority of cases, from generation to generation. TK is expressed in the form, medicine, agriculture, understanding of the ecology, music, dance, stories, folklore, poetry, spiritual, cultural and artistic expressions, and knowledge relating to bio-diversity. This thesis focuses on plant bio-diversity, as part of TK, and the problem of bio-piracy. We attempt a definition of TK; its characteristics; possible measures that can be taken to ensure its protection; and challenges that are likely to be faced in seeking to ensure its protection, first at the global level, then with particular attention to South Africa. Some of the suggested measures include the enactment of sui generis laws to protect plant biodiversity, rather that the adaptation of the existing IP regime. Some of the challenges include unwillingness of some countries to participate in international initiatives, like the US, which is not even a signatory of the CBD, and the difficulty of identifying the persons in whom ownership of the TK should be vested when it is possessed by many communities. This issue is a very sensitive one because there have been numerous cases of bio-piracy in developing countries perpetrated by corporations from industrialised countries. Some of the notable examples of bio-piracy include; The Neem tree from India whose products are used in medicine, toiletries and cosmetics; the Ayahuasca a vine used in India for religious and healing ceremonies; the Asian Turmeric plant used in cooking, cosmetics and medicine, the Hoodia Cactus plant in the Kalahari Desert of southern Africa used by the San people to stave off hunger. These instances have given rise to increased talks about the necessity of a law on the protection of TK relating to bio-diversity in general at the international, regional and national levels. The World Intellectual Property Organisation (WIPO) is working on enacting measures to ensure the protection and conservation of TK at the international level; in 2002 it created nine fact finding commissions on TK in general. These fact finding missions on TK innovation and creativity were undertaken with the intention of seeking possibilities of protecting the intellectual property rights of TK holders. In 2002, The WIPO Intergovernmental Committee on Intellectual Property and Genetic Resources, Traditional Knowledge and Folklore (IGC) was created to continue with this task. The 1993 Convention on Biodiversity (CBD) encourages States to enact measures to implement its provisions on the protection of knowledge, innovations and practices of indigenous and local communities. This trend in protection of TK relating to biological resources has been followed by the Nagoya Protocol of October 2010. The World Trade Organisation (WTO) also makes mention of protecting plant varieties. The research suggests that one could use both Intellectual Property Rights and Sui Generis measures to address and secure protection of TK, and provide compensation to holders for the use of the intellectual property. / South Africa

Magister Legum - LLM / Traditional Knowledge (TK) is the long standing wisdom, teachings and practices of indigenous communities which have been passed on orally, in the majority of cases, from generation to generation. TK is expressed in the form, medicine, agriculture, understanding of the ecology, music, dance, stories, folklore, poetry, spiritual, cultural and artistic expressions, and knowledge relating to bio-diversity. This thesis focuses on plant bio-diversity, as part of TK, and the problem of bio-piracy. We attempt a definition of TK; its characteristics; possible measures that can be taken to ensure its protection; and challenges that are likely to be faced in seeking to ensure its protection, first at the global level, then with particular attention to South Africa. Some of the suggested measures include the enactment of sui generis laws to protect plant biodiversity, rather that the adaptation of the existing IP regime. Some of the challenges include unwillingness of some countries to participate in international initiatives, like the US, which is not even a signatory of the CBD, and the difficulty of identifying the persons in whom ownership of the TK should be vested when it is possessed by many communities.

Infringement in fields of Intellectual Property Rights is a global problem causing repeated and sustained attention at national and international levels. A number of different organizations and commissions are constantly control and counteract the growth of these infringements, but despite the taken measures counterfeit and piracy goods continue to be manufactured and sold around the world. The Russian Federation (RF) is a country that has close commercial ties with many foreign states, including Sweden. However the RF is one of the countries, included on the Special 301 Priority Watch List due to the continuing and large - scale of Property Rights and Intellectual Property Rights violations. In this connection, a study was conducted with the participation of collaborating Swedish - Russian enterprises, whose activities could be subjected to counterfeiting and IP piracy. The aim of the study is to determine how collaborating Swedish – Russian enterprises with branches in the Russian Federation perceive the situation in the country and assess the activities of Russian institutions that play an important role in controlling and combating violations against counterfeiting and IP piracy. Moreover the aim includes identifying the most vulnerable class of actors in the general mechanism of counterfeiting and IP piracy. The research based on elements of the New Institutional Economics Theory and conducted by using a combination of a literature review and semi- structured interview with representatives of Swedish - Russian enterprises. The study found that organizations are the most vulnerable class of actors in general mechanism of counterfeiting and IP piracy. International firms and companies are in a more difficult situation because they provide own activities simultaneously in several legal and political systems. Representatives of interviewed companies argue that activities of analyzed Russian institutions are insufficiently effective and the state should take a set of measures so the foreign collaborative organizations could feel confident in territory of the RF and Russian market would become more attractive for foreign business.

摘要 開放原始碼軟體的出現，對軟體產業帶來巨大的衝擊。然而，針對開放原始碼軟體的研究，經常將開放原始碼軟體視為「沒有產權」的軟體，或是被更進一步提高到意識型態之爭，視為是爭取自由的「聖戰」。 本研究的成果指明，開放原始碼軟體之所以出現與茁壯，是回應軟體市場對個人化與差異化需求越來越高的有效方式。產品差異化的程度越高，對顧客知識的依賴程度越高，而開放原始碼軟體社群則是全然靠顧客的知識貢獻來開發軟體的一種組織形式。 開放原始碼授權協議作為一種產權制度，並非「沒有產權」或是「反對產權」，組織而是讓軟體開發社群成員的專質性知識與產權配置得以效率結合的制度發明。開放原始碼授權協議以著作權為基礎的制度安排，讓軟體開發者能夠自主地運用軟體原始碼、擴大社群成員間的知識共享、以及排除個人或商業公司在其間從事投機行為的可能性。 本研究對組織創新的三權假說於社群組織的運用，進行了初步的檢驗；此外，對於軟體產業該如何妥善運用顧客力量從事產品創新也提出了一些建議。 / Abstract The emergence of the open source software in the 1990s has made a huge impact on the software industry. However, the overall research on the open source software often regards it as “software without property right,” or even sees it a “holy war” fighting for freedom by heightening the ideological conflicts between liberalism and capitalism. The outcome of this research indicates that the initiation and development of the open source software serves as the effective response for the demanding software market of individualization and differentiation. The more the software product differentiates, the more the users’ knowledge has to be replied upon. The open source software community is a form of organization which entirely lives on the intellectual contribution of its customers. The licensing of the open source software as a system of property right does not mean that it has no property right or it is against property right; rather, it is an invention of system which allows the efficient combination of the community software developers and the distribution of property right. The licensing of the open source software based on the intellectual property right permits the software developers making use of the open source independently, expanding the communal share of knowledge among community members, and eliminating the possibilities of individuals and commercial companies who try to speculate in it. This study has made preliminary examinations on the application of the “hypothesis of the three powers” of the organizational innovation on communities and provides software industry with suggestions for how to make proper use of the power of customers.