I Sverige står bostadssektorn för mer än en tredjedel av landets energianvändning. Byggnader måste minska sin energianvändning för att således kunna uppfylla framtida lagkrav om maximal tillåten energianvändning, men också för att minska påverkan till global uppvärmning. Ytterligare en problematik som råder, däribland i Sverige, är bostadsbrist. Kommunala bostadsbolag står inför utmaningen att kunna bygga bostäder snabbt, billigt och miljövänligt för att minska bostadsbristen i landet. Ett sätt att studera två av tre hållbarhetsaspekter vid val av framtida bostadsbyggande är att utföra en livscykelanalys (LCA) och livscykelkostnadsanalys (LCC) kring de tilltänkta husen. LCA:er indikerar vilken miljöpåverkan en produkt förorsakar under dess livslängd. LCC:er avser att studera vilka kostnader produkter ger upphov till under en given analysperiod. Det svenska kommunala bostadsbolaget Stångåstaden AB står inför utmaningen kring bostadsbrist och vill bygga hållbara bostäder. Bostadsbolaget har önskat en jämförande LCA och LCC av två verkliga flerbostadshus som de genom ramavtal kan upphandla, detta är utgångspunkten för denna studie. Den ena byggnaden har stomme av betong, den andra har stomme av trä. Husen är tänkta att placeras i utkanten av Linköping, Sverige. Studien har valt att analysera miljöpåverkan från husens olika livscykelfaser samt kostnader över analysperioden 50 år. Utöver detta studeras även vilka energieffektiviseringsåtgärder (EEÅ) till byggnaderna som är optimala att genomföra för att öka den termiska prestandan hos huskonstruktionerna. Från litteraturen finns det relativt få studier som kombinerar både LCA och LCC för vanligt förekommande hustyper i städer. I dess standardfall påvisade resultatet från LCA:n att huset med betongkonstruktion hade något lägre påverkan i sex av sju studerade miljöpåverkanskategorier, jämfört med flerbostadshuset i trä. Resultatet skilde sig lite åt då annan typ av indata användes. Vad gäller kostnader under husens livslängd var huset i trä ungefär 20 % dyrare jämfört med huset med betongkonstruktion. Trots annan typ av indata var träkonstruktionen dyrare än betongkonstruktionen. Med en kalkylränta på 7,5 % var det inte lönsamt att genomföra EEÅ för husen, med halverad kalkylränta blev det dock lönsamt att tilläggsisolera krypgrunden i huset med trästomme. Fler studier behöver utföras för att generalla slutsatser ska kunna dras kring vilket konstruktionsmaterial som är mest hållbart. Denna studie baseras på två specifika fall. Samma resultat kan eventuellt inte förväntas för andra byggnader med stomme i betong och trä. / The residential sector accounts for more than a third of the energy use in Sweden. To reduce the energy use of buildings is a necessity in order to meet future regulationof maximum allowable energy, but also important to reduce the impact on global warming. Another complexity arising in Sweden is the shortage of accommodation. Municipal housing corporations face the challenge of constructing residences fast, cheap and with concern of environmental effects in order to reduce the shortage of accommodation. One way of assessing two of the three aspects of sustainability when looking at future construction of residential buildings is to carry out a Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) and a Life Cycle Cost Assessment (LCCA). An LCA can indicate what kind of environmental impact a product causes over its lifetime and the LCC allows for assessing what types of costs are associated with the product. For the municipal housing corporation Stångåstaden AB the shortage of accommodation is a reality and their mindset is sustainable construction of residences. This study was conducted upon request from Stångåstaden who wanted a comparative LCA and LCCA between two prefabricated multi-residential buildings that are available to them through a framework agreement. The first building has a concrete foundation and the second one is made of wood. The houses are planned to be placed at the outskirts of Linköping, Sweden. The focus of this study has been to comparatively assess the environmental impact from the different life cycle phases and the economic costs of the two buildings during a time period of 50 years. Moreover, the thesis also analyze the optimal retrofit strategy for the buildings in order to find the optimal (lowest) life cycle cost. Furthermore, the current literature has conveyed relatively few studies that combine both LCA and LCC methodology for house types that are common in most towns. The result from the LCA indicated that the house with concrete construction had a little less impact in six of the seven studied environmental impact categories compared to the house made of wood. The result differed slightly when the input data were changed. Regarding the LCCA the house made of wood was roughly 20 % more expensive than its concrete counterpart. Changing the input data revealed no difference in the result. With an interest rate of 7,5 % no retrofits were profitable for either building, however reducing the interest rate to half its original value made it cost optimal to increase the floor insulation for the house made of wood. More studies should be conducted to be able to draw general conclusions regarding which construction material that is the most sustainable. This thesis is based on two specific and real cases. The same result could possibly not be expected from other studies comparing buildings with concrete and wood construction.

Les différents types d’édifices résidentiels, urbains, suburbains et ruraux de l'époque de la Rome antique sur le territoire de la Serbie contemporaine, ainsi que la culture de l’habitat, représentent le sujet abordé dans la présente thèse. Cette réflexion analyse les principaux facteurs économiques, démographiques, sociologiques, géographiques, culturels et autres qui ont influencé le choix de l’emplacement des résidences, le développement de différents types d’agglomérations, la conception architecturale des édifices résidentiels et la création d’une culture de l’habitat. Les points primordiaux de cette recherche sont : l'analyse des zones résidentielles au sein des unités urbaines, les liens des propriétés suburbaines et rurales avec les centres urbains et le réseau de l'infrastructure de l'Antiquité tardive, ainsi que l'analyse comparative des éléments structuraux et décoratifs des maisons romaines du point de vue des matériaux utilisés, des techniques, de la décoration etc. Les éléments architecturaux et les caractéristiques fonctionnelles des maisons de l’Antiquité tardive sur le sol serbe sont comparés aux édifices construits dans les autres parties de l'Empire romain, afin d'identifier leurs valeurs spécifiques et les influences architecturales dominantes. La thèse représente une base de données bilingue accessible aux nouvelles générations de chercheurs, une contribution à l'ensemble des valeurs culturelles de la Serbie. Le but de cette base de données est d'élaborer une stratégie pour la conservation, la présentation et l'utilisation du patrimoine antique en tant que grand potentiel culturel, touristique et économique de développement durable. / The research topic of this thesis refers to residential buildings and residence culture in late Ancient Rome Classical antiquity period on the territory of the present-day Republic of Serbia. Research goal is to reconstruct residential architecture and culture from the Ancient Roman period on this territory, based upon analyses of preserved residential architecture structures, identification of architectural elements’ characteristics, creation of residential buildings typology, as well as analyses of residential urban zones, links between buildings and urban centers and infrastructure network. Through comparative analysis of spatial structure, functional, constructional and decorative elements, as well as characteristics of late Roman antiquity buildings on the territory of Serbia with residential buildings from other territories of Roman Empire, their specific values and dominant influences have been identified.Systematized data on residential buildings and reconstruction of residential culture on this territory allows further valorization of findings in comparison to other areas of Roman Empire. It also explains different types of late Antiquity residential buildings occurrence and their influence on later development of architectural forms. Collected and processed information, along with recommendations for preserving the fund of antique residence program as architectural heritage, has been transformed into bilingual database available to new generations of researches worldwide. / Предмет истраживања у докторској дисертацији су стамбени објекти и култура становања из периода касне антике на територији данашње Србије. Циљ истраживања је реконструкција стамбене архитектуре и културе становања у римском периоду на овом подручју, на основу проучавања сачуваних резиденцијалних структура, утврђивања карактеристика архитектонских елемената и формирања типологије стамбених објеката, као и анализе зона становања унутар градова, веза грађевина са урбаним центрима и са мрежом инфраструктуре. Упоредном анализом просторне структуре, функционалних, конструктивних и декоративних елемената, као и карактеристика касноантичких грађевина са територије Србије са стамбеним зградама из других области Римског царства, утврђене су њихове специфичне вредности и доминантни утицаји.Систематизовани подаци о стамбеним грађевинама и реконструкција стамбене културе на овом подручју омогућавају валоризацију налаза у односу на друга подручја Римске империје, као и боље разумевање настанка различитих типова касноантичких стамбених објеката и њиховог значаја за даљи развој архитектонских форми. Прикупљене и обрађене информације су, уз препоруке за очување фонда стамбеног програма антике као градитељске баштине, преточене у двојезичну базу података међународно доступну новим генерацијама истраживача.

Gröna byggnader hjälper till att driva den hållbara utvecklingen framåt, vilket behövs inom fastighetsbranschen på grund av dess stora miljöpåverkan. Den fortsatta utvecklingen kännetecknas av problem såsom bristande medvetenhet samt en osäkerhet kring det ekonomiska utfallet. Resultaten som framförs i denna studie bidrar till en ökad förståelse av hur medvetna fastighetsföretag är om gröna bostadsbyggnader samt hur de uppfattar de ekonomiska följderna. Studiens syfte är att belysa hur fastighetsföretag uppfattar de ekonomiskt positiva faktorerna (hyra, vakans, drift- och underhåll, image, inomhusmiljö och risk) som sammankopplas med gröna byggnader. Enbart en del av problemområdet berörs, varvid fokus är på de positiva faktorer som frekvent förekommit i tidigare studier på ämnesområdet. För att besvara syftet har en kvalitativ metod med ett deduktivt ansats valts. Sex fastighetsföretag med varierande miljöengagemang har intervjuats, där samtliga är verksamma i södra Värmland. Intervjufrågorna har baserats på identiskt material för att sedan delvis anpassas efter respektive fastighetsföretag. Resultatet av intervjuerna framkommer i studiens empiriska sammanställning samt analyseras utgående från den teoretiska referensramen. Både likheter och skillnader har observerats. Slutsatsen är att samtliga av de intervjuade fastighetsföretagen värdesätter någon av faktorerna, samt vidrör att ett långsiktigt förhållningssätt är viktigt. Det har framkommit att minskade drifts- och underhållskostnader samt en förbättrad image är de faktorerna som värdesätts högst. Den faktor som företagen anser har minst samband med gröna byggnader är minskad vakans, vilket kan bero på den rådande bostadsbristen. / Green buildings help to drive the sustainable development forward, which is needed in the real estate industry due to its major environmental impact. The continued development is characterized by problems such as a lack of awareness and an uncertainty about the economic outcome. The results presented in this study contributes to an increased understanding of how aware real estate companies are, and how they perceive green residential buildings financial impact. The purpose of this study is to illustrate how real estate companies perceive the economically positive factors (rent, vacancy, operating- and maintenance costs, image, indoor environment and risk) which are linked to green buildings. Only a part of the problem area is examined, whereas focus is going to be on the positive factors which frequently appear in previous studies on the subject area. A qualitative method with an deductive approach has been chosen for this essay in order to answer the purpose of the study. Interviews have been conducted with six real estate companies located in Southern Värmland, whom had varied environmental commitment. The questions that was used have been based on identical material and then been partly adapted after each company. The results from the interviews are stated in the empirical compilation and are being analysed in connection to the theoretical framework. Both similarities and differences have been observed. The concludes are that all of the interviewed real estate companies appreciate some of the factors. All of them mention that a long term approach is of relevance despite their varied startup presumption. It has emerged that the reduced operation- and maintenance cost and an improved image are the most appreciated factors. The factor that the real estate companies consider to have least correlance with green buildings is reduced vacancy, which can be due to the current lack of housing.

Die Entwicklung Sachsens im 19. Jh. - Die Geschichte der ersten beiden sächsischen Baugenossenschaften: (1.) in Mittweida und (2.) in Meißen – Die Pioniere des deutschen Genossenschaftswesens: Victor Aimè Huber und Schulze-Delitzsch. - (1.) Die Entwicklung der Industrie in Mittweida und 1873 die Gründung des Bauvereins zu Mittweida - Die drei Wohnbauten des Bauvereins mit Lageplan und alten Bauzeichnungen sowie kritische Untersuchung der Wohnungsgrundrisse. - (2.) Die Entwicklung Meißens zu einer Industriestadt des 19. Jahrhunderts und die Bedeutung ihrer keramischen Industrie. - Zur Gründung des Meißner Bauvereins Jahre 1873 und seiner Baugeschichte. - Die drei genossenschaftlichen Wohnbauten mit Lageplan und alten Bauzeichnungen. Kritische Betrachtung der Wohnungsgrundrisse unter Berücksichtigung des Einbaus von Kachelöfen aus Meißener Produktion. - (3.) Ein Epilog: Das Heizen der Wohnung im 19. Jh. - Verbesserung der Heiz- und Kochtechnik durch den Einsatz von Kachelöfen - Die Kachelproduktion in Meißen und in Velten/Mark. - Zur Gewinnung von Rohbraunkohle und der Brikettierung - Das Braunkohlenbrikett. - Fotografien gusseiserner Öfen und Kachelöfen aus Meißen und Velten/Mark im 19.Jh. Insgesamt 51 Seiten mit 33 Abbildungen.

Der Klimawandel ist auf regionaler Ebene nachweisbar. Zudem gehen Forschungsergebnisse davon aus, dass sich Ereignisse wie Überflutung und Starkregen regional differenziert zukünftig noch intensivieren werden. Bereits heute belegen Schadensmeldungen in der Region Dresden einen sich aus den klimatischen Veränderungen ergebenden Handlungsbedarf in Form von Anpassungsmaßnahmen auf Gebäudeebene. Deshalb sind die Hauptziele der vorliegenden Arbeit das Aufzeigen der Verletzbarkeit von Wohngebäuden und die Erarbeitung von Vorschlägen für entsprechende Ertüchtigungen. Als Datenbasis dient zum einen die baukonstruktive Analyse typischer Beispielgebäude der Region Dresden, welche gleichzeitig die wichtigsten Baualtersstufen abbilden. Dadurch können die in der Region hauptsächlich anzutreffenden baukonstruktiven Durchformungen, Nutzungen und Charakteristiken von Wohngebäuden abgedeckt werden. Dies dient als Grundlage zur Beurteilung der Verletzbarkeit und Anpassungsfähigkeit der wichtigsten Baukonstruktionen gegenüber den Einwirkungen Überflutung und Starkregen. Zum anderen dient als Datenbasis die Dokumentation, Analyse und Interpretation abgelaufener Schadensereignisse in Bezug auf Schadensbilder und Schadensmechanismen an Gebäuden und Baukonstruktionen. Innerhalb der Verletzbarkeitsanalyse gegenüber Überflutung führt die Beschreibung von Schadenstypen, Schadensbildern und Schadensmechanismen in die Erläuterung einer Methodik zur Abschätzung von Hochwasserschäden an Gebäuden. Diese wird in der Arbeit dazu verwendet, die spezifische Verletzbarkeit der einzelnen Beispielgebäude gegenüber der Einwirkung Überflutung mit Hilfe von Wasserstand-Schaden-Beziehungen zu ermitteln. Darauf aufbauend können nun Bereiche, welche aufgrund ihrer hohen Verletzbarkeit angepasst werden sollten, eingegrenzt werden. In der Folge werden beispielhaft bautechnisch mögliche Anpassungsmaßnahmen vorgestellt, am baukonstruktiven Detail gezeigt und ihre positiven Auswirkungen auf die Wasserstand-Schaden-Beziehungen beziehungsweise auf die Verringerung der Verletzbarkeit der Beispielgebäude dargestellt.

Energianvändningen idag är den största bidragande faktorn till de globala klimatförändringarna vilket ställer krav på mer hållbar och resurseffektiv energihantering. I Sverige står sektorn bostäder och service för ca 40 % av den slutgiltiga energianvändningen motsvarande 144 TWh. För att nå en mer hållbar byggnadssektor har EU i direktivet för Byggnaders Energiprestanda satt målet att byggnadssektorn ska vara fossilfri till 2050, samt beslutat att varje medlemsstat ska etablera en långsiktig renoveringsstrategi. Nationellt finns därmed målet att minska den totala energianvändningen per uppvärmd area med 50 % till 2050 jämfört med 1995. Detta innebär att omfattande energieffektiviseringsåtgärder (EEÅ) behöver implementeras i Sveriges byggnadsbestånd. I examensarbetet jämförs den nationella potentialen avseende energibesparing, kostnadseffektivitet samt utsläppsreduktion av koldioxidekvivalenter (CO2eq) för olika energieffektiviseringsåtgärder (EEÅ) kopplade till uppvärmning och tappvarmvattenanvändning i flerbostadshus. Vidare undersöks även hur väl anpassade befintliga styrmedel är för de studerade EEÅ. För att besvara frågeställningarna har sex olika typhus tagits fram vilka är representativa för Sveriges bestånd av flerbostadshus. Dessa byggnader har modellerats i programvaran IDA ICE och energisimuleringar har genomförts för att undersöka effekterna av samtliga EEÅ. Vidare, styrmedel kopplade till energieffektivisering av flerbostadshus har analyserats och dess innebörd för olika EEÅ granskats. Resultatet visar att inom det svenska flerbostadshusbeståndet har installation av spillvattenvärmeåtervinning och FTX störst tekniskt möjlig energibesparingspotential med en årlig nationell energibesparingspotential på 5,3 TWh respektive 4,7 TWh. Isolering av tak är den EEÅ med högst kostnadseffektivitet per sparad energienhet, 334–579 SEK/MWh beroende på klimatzon, följt av spillvattenvärmeåtervinning och FTX som har en kostnadseffektivitet på 1267–1503 SEK/MWh respektive 1882–3587 SEK/MWh. Takisolering är även den EEÅ som är mest kostnadseffektiv för utsläppsminskning av koldioxidekvivalenter följt av spillvattenvärmeåtervinning och FTX. För takisolering är kostnadseffektiviteten 5,9–10,3 tSEK/ton CO2eq, 28,2–33,5 tSEK/ton CO2eq för spillvattenvärmeåtervinning och 39,5–93 tSEK/ton CO2eq för installation av FTX. Utifrån de styrmedel som studerats konstateras det att befintliga styrmedel för energieffektivisering i flerbostadshus inkluderar konventionella EEÅ men att det finns bristfällig information och krav gällande återvinning av värme från spillvatten trots åtgärdens höga energibesparingspotential och kostnadseffektivitet. Bättre kunskap och information gällande kostnadseffektiviteten för olika EEÅ kan leda till mer resurseffektiva åtgärdsförslag från energiexperter och även öka renoveringstakten. / Today's energy use is the largest contributing factor to global climate change, which calls for a more sustainable and resource-efficient energy management. In Sweden, the residential and service sector accounts for about 40% of the final energy use, corresponding to 144 TWh. To achieve a more sustainable building sector, the European Commission has set a target in the Energy Efficiency Directive that the building sector should be fossil-free by 2050 and decided that every Member State should establish a long-term renovation strategy. Nationally, there is a target to reduce the total energy use per heated area by 50% by 2050. This requires a large-scale implementation of energy efficiency measures (EEMs) in Sweden's building stock. This master thesis compares the national potential regarding energy saving, cost-effectiveness and emission reduction of carbon dioxide equivalents (CO2eq) for various EEMs linked to heating and domestic hot water use in multi-family buildings. Furthermore, it is also examined how well-adjusted existing policy instruments are to the studied EEMs. To answer the research questions, six different reference buildings, which are representative of Sweden’s stock of multi-family buildings, have been developed. These buildings have been modeled using the software IDA ICE and energy simulations have been carried out to investigate the effects for all EEMs. Policy instruments regarding energy efficiency in multi-family buildings have been analyzed and their significance for various EEMs have been investigated. The results show that installation of wastewater heat recovery and exhaust air heat recovery has the highest technically possible energy saving potential with an annual national saving potential of 5.3 TWh and 4.7 TWh, respectively Roof insulation is the EEM with the highest cost-effectiveness per saved energy unit, 334–579 SEK/MWh depending on climate zone, followed by wastewater heat recovery with a cost-effectiveness of 1267–1503 SEK/MWh and exhaust air heat recovery with 1882–3587 SEK/MWh. Roof insulation is also the EEM that is most cost-effective regarding reduced CO2eq -emissions, followed by wastewater heat recovery and exhaust air heat recovery. For roof insulation, the cost-effectiveness is 5.9–10.3 kSEK/ton CO2eq, 28.2–33.5 kSEK/ton CO2eq for wastewater heat recovery and 39.5–93 kSEK/ton CO2eq for installation of exhaust air heat recovery. Based on the studied policy instruments, it is found that the existing policy instruments for EMMs in multi-family buildings include conventional EMMS. However, there is insufficient information and requirements regarding recovery of heat from wastewater despite the measure's high energy saving potential and cost-effectiveness. Better knowledge and information regarding the cost-effectiveness of various EEMs can lead to more resource-efficient suggestions from energy experts and increase the pace of renovation.

Human efforts to increase their comfort rise in density of population in congested city areas, rapid growth of traffic and electric smog created due to constantly transforming communication technologies all resulted in an increase of stress in the immediate human environment. All of this, along with frequent reports about changes in global climate, gradually contributes to an alteration of thinking of the whole society, which is forced to face the consequences of economic damages caused by climatic changes. If we want to tenably assert adequate economic and social living conditions, we have to approach the natural environment in a more profound way. In accordance with the trend of substantional development for the purpose of enhancement of the quality of the living environment in the field of building industry, it is logical to concentrate on buildings, which are conceptually focused on saving of the energy. That is on energy-efficient houses. Pathway to sustainable building is not based on discovering one or several multipurpose technological solutions, but on usage of new designing principles, new materials and methods of processing them as well as new techniques of construction. For an effective creation of a building concept it is essential to have that kind of device which quickly responds to changes performed on a design, enables an easier work on variants and produces the most accurate results. Consistent application of energy optimizing methods is necessary particularly for designs of energy saving houses. Beginning efficient building design is the most “abstract factor of concept linked with very uncertain inputs,” because a lot of parameters in that moment is still unknown. Many mutually connected factors are invoked during designing passive house e.g. trajectory of the sun and the shielding effect of the surroundings, the aspect of sunlight and interior lighting, power quality construction, etc. Currently, the architect has no choice, he can use only well-known precepts, such as large windows are facing the South not the North. Unfortunately this "empirical formula" for the design of a real passive house is not enough. And yet the first draft of the house is most affected by not only its shape, form, but user´s comfortable, cost, feasibility and future energy behavior of buildings and related operating costs of the house too. It is obvious that this stage should not be underestimated, because “minor variation of the initial inputs greatly influence the outcomes.” With this reasoning, the work focuses on early stage design decision, i.e. the architectural concept of a passive house (an idea, vision). Therefore the aim of this work is to simplify the issue into understandable form, i.e. the creation of relatively simple and illustrative sketches, which generalize the issue satisfactorily, show the individual parameters (glazing, shading, shape, size, etc.) and change need of heat for heating passive house. The results of the work will be useful when the architect picks up the pencil and starts to think about his future house. At this point, he will have on hand sketches, which give him an idea and streamline his further design. Therefore the main goal is to create new outcomes and identify energy behaviour of buildings with a computational tool. This research works with virtual idealized mathematical model in the software PHPP 2007 CZ and uses "phenomenon" of parametric equations and sensitivity analysis.

The first volume of the Academy project 'Buddhist Murals of Kucha on the Northern Silk Road' contains three studies that show what information can be gained from the paintings. The first study by Ines Konczak-Nagel, “Painted Buddhist Cosmology: The Pictorial Programme of Central Pillar Caves in Kizil”, demonstrates how Buddhist cosmology, always seen in connection with the Buddhist path of salvation, is represented in the selection of topics and the arrangement of paintings on the cave walls. The second study by the same author, “Representations of Architecture and Architectural Elements on the Wall Paintings of Kucha”, is part of an ongoing extensive analysis of the material culture depicted in the paintings. The architecture represented provides insights into the local Tocharian architecture of Kucha, which has since disappeared. The study of Monika Zin “The Monk Kāśyapa in Kucha, the First Council, and the Furtherance of Buddhist Teaching” examines interesting extensions within the paintings illustrating the events connected with Buddha’s death, the many-scenic representations of the first council in Rājagṛha. There are good reason to believe that the monk Mahākāśyapa who was supposed to convoke the summit was worshiped in Kucha as a saint and guarantor of the preservation of Buddhist teachings.:Foreword by the Series Editors (Eli Franco and Monika Zin) I. Painted Buddhist Cosmology: The Pictorial Programme of Central Pillar Caves in Kizil (Ines Konczak-Nagel) Bibliography List of Illustrations with Acknowledgements II. Representations of Architecture and Architectural Elements in the Wall Paintings of Kucha (Ines Konczak-Nagel) 1 City Fortifications in 1st Indo-Iranian Style Paintings: Kuśinagara 2 City Fortifications in 2nd Indo-Iranian Style Paintings: Rājagṛha and Kuśinagara 2.1 Representations of the City of Rājagṛha 2.2 Representations of the City of Kuśinagara 2.3 Analysis of the Architectural Elements of City Fortifications 2.3.1 Walls 2.3.2 Loopholes 2.3.3 Crenellated Wall Walks 2.3.4 Towers 2.3.5 Gates and Access Paths 2.3.6 Decorative Elements 2.4 Conclusion 3 Representations of Fortifications of Other Cities in Kuchean Paintings 3.1 Depictions of City Fortifications with Towers along the Wall 3.1.1 Depictions of the City of nirvāṇa 3.1.2 Depictions of the City of Gods on Mount Meru 3.2 Simplified Depictions of City Fortifications 3.2.1 A Wall Painting in the 1st Indo-Iranian Style Showing the Story of Śroṇakoṭikarṇa 3.2.2 Wall Paintings in the 2nd Indo-Iranian Style Showing the Story of Maitrakanyaka 3.2.3 Wall Paintings in the 2nd Indo-Iranian Style Showing a City Fortification Occupied by Demons 3.3 Conclusion 4 Representations of Isolated City Gates and Palace Gates 4.1 Exceptions 4.2 Décor 4.3 Conclusion 5 Architectural Elements in and on Residential Buildings 5.1 Pillars 5.2 Ceilings 5.3 Windows 5.4 Balustrades 5.5 Conclusion 6 General Conclusion Bibliography List of Illustrations with Acknowledgements III. The Monk Kāśyapa in Kucha, the First Council, and the Furtherance of Buddhist Teaching. With an Appendix of Primary Sources Concerning the First Council as Given by Przyluski, Compiled by Fang Wang (Monika Zin) The Cycle within the Cycle: The Council of Rājagṛha in Kizil The Wall for Monks and the Cremation The Characteristics and Worship of the Monk Mahākāśyapa Mahākāśyapa in Kucha Appendix Bibliography List of Illustrations with Acknowledgements Index Figures

Energy from solar photovoltaic (PV) are generated as direct current (DC) and almost all of today’s electrical loads in residential buildings, household appliances and HVAC system (Heating Ventilation and Air-conditioning) are operated on DC. For a conventional alternating current (AC) distribution system this requires the need for multiple conversion steps before the final user-stage. By switching the distribution system to DC, conversion steps between AC to DC can be avoided and, in that way, losses are reduced. Including a battery storage–the system’s losses can be reduced further and the generated PV energy is even better utilised. This thesis investigates and quantifies the energy savings when using a direct current distribution topology in a residential building together with distributed energy generation from solar photovoltaic and a battery storage. Measured load and PV generation data for a single-family house situated in Borås, Sweden is used as a case study for the analysis. Detailed and dynamic models–based on laboratory measurements of the power electronic converters and the battery–are also used to more accurately reflect the system’s dynamic performance. In this study a dynamic representation of the battery’s losses is presented which is based on laboratory measurements of the resistance and current dependency for a single lithium-ion cell based on Lithium iron phosphate (LFP). A comparative study is made with two others, commonly used, loss representations and evaluated with regards to the complete system’s performance, using the PV and load data from the single-family house. Results show that a detailed battery representation is important for a correct loss prediction when modelling the interaction between loads, PV and the battery. Four DC system topologies are also modelled and compared to an equivalent AC topology using the experimental findings from the power electronic converters and the battery measurements. Results from the quasi-dynamic modelling show that the annual energy savings potential from the suggested DC topologies ranges between 1.9–5.6%. The DC topologies also increase the PV utilisation by up to 10 percentage points, by reducing the associated losses from the inverter and the battery conversion. Results also show that the grid-tied converter is the main loss contributor and when a constant grid-tied efficiency is used, the energy savings are overestimated.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] El sector de la edificación representa el 20% y el 40% de la energía primaria mundial, contribuyendo al 30% de las emisiones de CO2, un desafío amplificado por el crecimiento de la población. Sin embargo, el creciente interés en las fuentes de energía renovables ya maduras, como la energía solar fotovoltaica (PV), ofrece oportunidades para mitigar los anteriores impactos, así como potenciales beneficios económicos, ambientales y sociales. El presente trabajo investiga las posibilidades y limitaciones en el despliegue masivo de sistemas de autoconsumo fotovoltaico (PVSC) en áreas urbanas desde una perspectiva de planificación urbana, considerando las limitaciones técnicas y económicas actuales. Con este fin, esta tesis emplea estrategias basadas en datos para desarrollar modelos físicos y modelos ágiles basados en regresiones como herramientas de evaluación del potencial técnico y económico de los sistemas PVSC en contextos urbanos. En primer lugar, se ha desarrollado y validado un submodelo empírico de producción fotovoltaica con mediciones climáticas y de producción recopiladas de una planta fotovoltaica de 50MW en funcionamiento. Además, se han investigado varias mejoras en el modelado del performance ratio (PR) en entornos de baja irradiancia. En la segunda etapa de esta investigación, el submodelo anterior se ha integrado en un modelo tecnoeconómico 3D basado en sistemas de información geográfica (GIS) capaz de evaluar el PVSC económico para una muestra de edificios residenciales. Además, el modelo incorpora modelos de sombras y estimaciones de demanda eléctrica horaria para evaluar una muestra de edificios residenciales. Una base de datos de simulación, derivada de los resultados anteriores, ha permitido el desarrollo de una metodología para entrenar un modelo basado en regresión y con ello estimar la producción y el periodo de retorno económico (PB) a escala de edificio con una precisión asumible para fines de planificación energética. Como último paso, se mejoró el submodelo de demanda empleando datos reales agregados de series temporales para múltiples patrones de consumo y proporcionando estimaciones realistas para otras tipologías de edificios. Además de las restricciones espaciales, el modelo optimiza el tamaño de las instalaciones según su demanda y limitaciones económicas, maximizando la relación entre autosuficiencia (SS) y el PB. Además, la metodología basada en regresión se ha ampliado para estimar, además del retorno de la inversión, múltiples indicadores clave de desempeño (KPIs) como la tasa interna de retorno (IRR), la tasa de autoconsumo (SC) y SS. A través de una adecuada identificación de predictores y una metodología de entrenamiento y validación, estas correlaciones permitieron estimaciones de rendimiento con una desviación aceptable respecto al modelo físico. La disponibilidad de datos relacionados con la construcción está aumentando progresivamente en la mayoría de los países, lo que permite una amplia aplicación y generalización de las metodologías propuestas y reduce el costo de simulación de estos estudios para cubrir áreas urbanas más extensas. Como aplicación de las metodologías anteriores, se analizaron los resultados del potencial económico fotovoltaico del parque inmobiliario completo de un municipio mediterráneo bajo diferentes escenarios económicos y de demanda a escala de edificio y municipal. Para el escenario que cumple con la regulación actual en España, la SS municipal oscila entre el 22%-43% para los escenarios más optimista y pesimista, respectivamente. El dimensionamiento óptimo de las instalaciones según las curvas de carga en la modalidad de Net Billing (NB) es crucial para obtener resultados económicos competitivos. En consecuencia, la generación fotovoltaica anual representó el 68% del consumo eléctrico total anual. / [CA] El sector de l'edificació representa el 20% i el 40% de l'energia primària mundial, contribuint al 30% de les emissions de CO2, un desafiament amplificat pel creixement de la població. No obstant això, el creixent interés en les fonts d'energia renovables ja madures, com l'energia solar fotovoltaica (PV), ofereix oportunitats per a mitigar els anteriors impactes, així com potencials beneficis econòmics, ambientals i socials. El present treball investiga les possibilitats i limitacions en el desplegament massiu de sistemes PVSC en àrees urbanes des d'una perspectiva de planificació urbana, considerant les limitacions tècniques i econòmiques actuals. A aquest efecte, aquesta tesi empra estratègies basades en dades per a desenvolupar models físics i models àgils basats en regressions com a eines d'avaluació del potencial tècnic i econòmic dels sistemes PVSC en contextos urbans. En primer lloc, s'ha desenvolupat i validat un submodel empíric de producció fotovoltaica amb mesuraments climàtics i de producció recopilats d'una planta fotovoltaica de 50MW en funcionament. A més, s'han investigat diverses millores en el modelatge del performance ràtio (PR) en entorns de baixa irradiància. En la segona etapa d'aquesta investigació, el submodel anterior s'ha integrat en un model tecnoeconòmic 3D basat en sistemes d'informació geográfica (GIS) capaç d'avaluar el PVSC econòmic per a una mostra d'edificis residencials. A més, el model incorpora models d'ombres i estimacions de demanda elèctrica horària per a avaluar una mostra d'edificis residencials. Una base de dades de simulació, derivada dels resultats anteriors, ha permés el desenvolupament d'una metodologia per a entrenar un model basat en regressió i amb això estimar la producció i la període de retorn econòmic (PB) a escala d'edifici amb una precisió assumible per a fins de planificació energètica. Com a últim pas, es va millorar el submodel de demanda emprant dades reals agregats de sèries temporals per a múltiples patrons de consum i proporcionant estimacions realistes per a altres tipologies d'edificis. A més de les restriccions espacials, el model optimitza la grandària de les instal·lacions segons la seua demanda i limitacions econòmiques, maximitzant la relació entre la taxa d'autosuficiència (SS) i PB. A més, la metodologia basada en regressió s'ha ampliat per a estimar, a més del retorn de la inversió, múltiples indicadors clau d'acompliment (KPIs) com la taxa interna de retorn (IRR), la taxa d'autoconsum (SC) i la SS. A través d'una adequada identificació de predictors i una metodologia d'entrenament i validació, aquestes correlacions van permetre estimacions de rendiment amb una desviació acceptable respecte al model físic. La disponibilitat de dades relacionades amb la construcció està augmentant progressivament en la majoria dels països, la qual cosa permet una àmplia aplicació i generalització de les metodologies proposades i redueix el cost de simulació d'aquests estudis per a cobrir àrees urbanes més extenses. Com a aplicació de les metodologies anteriors, es van analitzar els resultats del potencial econòmic fotovoltaic del parc immobiliari complet d'un municipi mediterrani baix diferents escenaris econòmics i de demanda a escala d'edifici i municipal. Per a l'escenari que compleix amb la regulació actual a Espanya, la taxa d'autosuficiència municipal oscil·la entre el 22%-43% per als escenaris més optimista i pessimista, respectivament. El dimensionament òptim de les instal·lacions segons les corbes de càrrega en la modalitat de Net Billing (NB) és crucial per a obtindre resultats econòmics competitius. En conseqüència, la generació fotovoltaica anual va representar el 68% del consum elèctric total anual. / [EN] The building sector in developed countries consumes 20% to 40% of global primary energy, contributing to 30% of the CO2 emissions, a challenge amplified by urban population growth. However, the rising interest in mature renewable energy sources, such as solar photovoltaic (PV), offers opportunities to mitigate these impacts and potential economic, environmental, and social benefits. The present research investigates the possibilities and constraints in the massive deployment of photovoltaic self-consumption (PVSC) systems in urban areas from an urban planning perspective, considering the current technical and economic limitations. To this end, this thesis employs data-driven strategies to develop both bottom-up physical and agile regression-based models as assessment tools for the technical and economic potential of PVSC systems in urban contexts. First, an empirical PV production submodel has been developed and validated with climate and production measurements collected from a 50MW utility-scale in operation. Additionally, several improvements in modeling the performance ratio (PR) in low-irradiance environments have been investigated. In the second stage of this research, the previous submodel has been integrated into a physical 3D GIS-based techno-economic model capable of assessing the economic PVSC for a sample of residential buildings. Additionally, the model incorporates shadow modeling and hourly electric demand estimations to assess sample residential buildings. A simulation database, derived from the previous results, has allowed the development of a methodology to train a regression-based model to estimate the production and the economic payback (PB) at a building scale with an assumable accuracy for energy planning purposes. As the last step, the demand submodel was improved by employing real aggregated time series data for multiple consumer patterns and providing realistic estimations for other building typologies. In addition to spatial restrictions, the model optimizes the sizing of the facilities according to their demand and economic constraints, maximizing the relationship between self-sufficiency (SS) and PB. Furthermore, the regression-based methodology has been extended to estimate, besides the payback, multiple key performance indicators such as internal rate of return (IRR), self-consumption rate (SC), and SS. Through an appropriate predictor identification and a training and validation methodology, these correlations allowed performance estimations with an acceptable deviation compared with the physical model. The availability of building-related data is progressively increasing in most countries, enabling widespread application and generalization of the proposed methodologies and reducing the simulation cost of these studies to cover larger urban areas. As an application of the previous methodologies, a complete-census economic PV potential results of a Mediterranean municipality's building stock was performed under different demand and economic scenarios at a building and municipality scale. For the scenario that meets the current regulation in Spain, the municipality SS ranged between 22%-43% for the most optimistic and pessimistic scenarios, respectively. The optimal sizing of the facilities according to the load curves in the Net Billing (NB) modality is crucial to obtaining competitive economic results. Consequently, the annual PV generation represented 68% of the annual total electricity consumption of the municipality for a net billing scenario, while a net metering scenario represented 103%. Owing to economies of scale and high demand intensity, a higher profitability was found in rooftops of apartment blocks and industrial buildings, which also achieve the highest savings in emissions. / Fuster Palop, E. (2023). Modeling and Optimization of Photovoltaic Installations at Urban Scale [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/202061 / Compendio