Under Covid-19-pandemin infördes en nationell vaccinationsplan i Sverige, som medförde att vissa restriktioner belades med vaccinationsbevis. Bevisen var en del i ledet för att förhindra att ovaccinerade individer samlades i större grupper och bidrog till smittspridning. Vaccinationsbevisen polariserade befolkningen till vaccinerade och ovaccinerade, där de ovaccinerade riskerade att exkluderas till följd av sitt demokratiska ställningstagande. Då sociala krav och förväntningar kan vara utlösande stressfaktorer riskerade de ovaccinerade individerna att bli en del av folkhälsans statistik. Syftet med studien har varit att förstå hur den ovaccinerade individen upplevde restriktionerna. Med anledning av situationens karaktär har studien antagit ett socialpsykologiskt angreppssätt som med hjälp av de teoretiska utgångspunkterna social makt, stämpling och psykosocial stress sökt förståelse för problemet. De tio ovaccinerade respondenterna som deltog i studien intervjuades med hjälp av kvalitativa semistrukturerade intervjuer. Resultatet visade att restriktionerna upplevdes som ett indirekt maktutövande till följd av skepticism och känslor av orättvisa med falsk trygghet, då det med tiden visade sig att vaccinerade också spred smittan. Deras ställningstagande upplevdes även som normbrytande, vilket genererade ett undanhållande av vaccinationsstatuset. Vidare visade resultatet att omedveten stress och subjektiva värderingar genererade copingstrategier som därmed föranledde en alternativ tillvaro med acceptans. / During the Covid-19 pandemic, Sweden decided to implement a national vaccination plan for all citizens. This brought restrictions which imposed a vaccination certificate to prevent unvaccinated individuals from gathering in large groups and spread the infection. The vaccination certificate polarized the population to vaccinated and unvaccinated, and where the unvaccinated risked exclusion due to their democratic choice. Social demands and expectations can be triggers for stress related illnesses and the unvaccinated therefore risked being a number in the statistics of public health. The purpose of this study was to understand how the unvaccinated individual experienced the restrictions. Due to the character of the situation a social psychology approach was used and with help of the theories social power, labeling theory and psychosocial stress the understanding of the problem was sought. The ten unvaccinated respondents who took part in the study were interviewed with the help of qualitative semi structured interviews. The results showed that the restrictions were perceived as an indirect exercise of power as a result of skepticism and feelings of injustice with false safety, when it in time showed that vaccinatinated also spread the disease. Their position was also perceived as norm- breaking which generated a withholding of the vaccination status.The result also showed that subconscious stress and subjective values led to an alternative existence with acceptance.

Background: During covid-19, restrictions were introduced that restricted public gatherings. This particularly affected the age group 70 years and older, and the elderly's ability to perform physical activity in groups.  Aim: The purpose was to investigate how the return to physical exercise in groups after covid-19, affects the health of the elderly from a biopsychosocial perspective.  Method: A qualitative interview study with five participants. The inclusion criteria were people over the age of 70 who participated in group training for a period of at least one year before the closure of Meeting Points in Uppsala and refrained from training in groups due to pandemic. Spoke and understood the Swedish language. Qualitative content analysis was used in the data processing. Results: The return affected the informants both physically, socially and mentally. Responses about the physical return were improved mobility, less pain and increased muscle strength, but also the impact of physical return was experienced. Due to the social aspect, the informants answered that the return gave belonging with reduced loneliness and more social behavior. The psychological factors in respect to the return were increased joy, hope and the ability to think. For some, however, no effect was felt on the ability to think when returning. Conclusion: Biopsychosocial health expressed the participants were physical capacity, social well-being and mental well-being and an important reason why they participate in the Meeting Points group-training. All the biopsychosocial aspects of group-training were absent at the social constraints during covid-19 and were more clearly experienced at the return.Physical activity in groups is therefore important for the elderly's biopsychosocial health, especially in times when social interaction is subject to restrictions. / Bakgrund: Under covid-19 infördes restriktioner som begränsade allmänna sammankomster. Detta påverkade särskilt åldersgruppen 70 år och äldres möjlighet att utföra fysisk aktivitet i grupp. Syfte: Undersöka hur återgång efter covid-19, till fysisk träning i grupp påverkar äldres hälsa ur ett biopsykosocialt perspektiv. Metod: En kvalitativ intervjustudie med fem deltagare. Inklusionskriterierna var personer över 70 år som deltagit i gruppträning under en period av minst ett år innan nedstängningen på Träffpunkter i Uppsala och avstått från att träna i grupp p.g.a. pandemin. Talade och förstod svenska språket. Vid databearbetningen användes kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Resultatsammanfattning: Återgången påverkade informanterna både fysiskt, socialt och psykiskt. Svar om den fysiska återgången var förbättrad rörelseförmåga, mindre smärta och ökad muskelstyrka, men också opåverkan av fysisk återgång upplevdes. Till den sociala aspekten i det biopsykologiska perspektivet svarade informanterna att återgången gav tillhörighet med minskad ensamhet och mer socialt beteende. De psykologiska faktorerna vid återgången var ökad glädje, hopp och tankeförmåga. För vissa upplevdes dock ingen påverkan av tankeförmågan vid återgången. Slutsats: Biopsykosocial hälsa uttryckte deltagarna var fysiska kapacitet, sociala välbefinnande och psykiska välmående och en viktig anledning till att de medverkar i Träffpunkternas gruppträning. Alla de biopsykosociala aspekterna av gruppträningen saknades vid de sociala begränsningarna under covid-19 och upplevdes tydligare vid återgången. Anpassade aktiviteter för att fortsätta fysisk aktivitet i grupp är därför viktigt för de äldres biopsykosociala hälsa speciellt i tider då det sociala umgänget beläggs med restriktioner.

Den 11 mars 2020 klassades Coronaviruset som en pandemi och har sedan dess kommit att påverka såväl den svenska ekonomin som arbetslöshet och bostadsmarknad. Till följd av Coronapandemin sköts allt fler jobb på distans och efterfrågan på större bostäder har ökat. Likaså har efterfrågan på utbildning växt och antalet studerande ökat. Den lågkonjunktur som förväntades drabba ekonomin har lett till beslut om slopat amorteringskrav och att behålla reporäntan på noll procent. I uppsatsen analyseras data från Svensk Mäklarstatistik, som inkluderar bostadsrätter sålda under perioden 1 mars 2019 till 31 december 2020, samt kompletterande data från Booli för perioden 1 januari 2019 till 28 februari 2019. I syfte att fokusera på unga förstagångsköpare som riskerar att bli utkonkurrerade när efterfrågan på bostäder ökar, inkluderas endast bostadsrätter mindre än 50 kvadratmeter i studien. Genom metoden difference-in-difference analyseras prisförändring på bostadsmarknaden i Uppsala kommun perioden före och efter att Covid-19 etablerat sig. Som jämförelsegrupp används bostadsrätter sålda under samma period ett år tidigare. De huvudsakliga resultaten visar att effekten av Covid-19 på priserna för bostadsrätter under 50 kvadratmeter var positiv. Statistiskt signifikanta resultat fås när kontrollvariabler för BNP och ränta inkluderas. / March 11th, 2020, the Coronavirus was classified as a pandemic and has since come to affect the Swedish economy, unemployment and the housing market. As a result of the Covid-19 pandemic, more jobs are being managed remotely and the demand for larger homes has increased. Similarly, the demand for education has grown and the number of students has increased. The recession, which was expected to hit the economy, led to a decision to abolish amortization requirements and to maintain the repo rate at zero percent. The thesis uses data from Svensk Mäklarstatistik, which includes condominiums sold between the period March 1st 2019 to December 31st 2020, as well as supplementary data from Booli.se for the period January 1st 2019 to February 28th 2019. Only condominiums under 50 square meters are included, in order to focus on first-time buyers who risk being outcompeted when the demand for condominiums increases. Through a difference-in-difference study, the aim is to analyze price changes in the housing market in Uppsala municipality, analyzing the period before and after Covid-19 established. As a comparison group, condominiums sold during the same period one year earlier are used. The main results show that final prices for condominiums under 50 square meters increased. Statistically significant results are obtained when control variables for GDP and interest rates are included.

Studiens syfte var att undersöka de yrkesverksammas erfarenheter kring effekternaav isolering av de intagna på häkten, samt förstår hur de yrkesverksamma arbetarmed isoleringsbrytande åtgärder på svenska restriktionshäkten.Studien genomfördes utifrån en kvalitativ ansats, där halvstrukturerade intervjuergjordes på sex yrkesverksamma med varierande arbetslivserfarenhet. Resultatetvisade att de yrkesverksamma uppfattar att isoleringen påverkar de intagnapsykiskt likväl som fysiskt. Häktena i Sverige är ofta fullbelagda och i och meddetta uppkommer lokalbrist. Till följd av lokalbrist och även brist på personalpåverkas arbetet med de isoleringsbrytande åtgärderna. Studiens slutsats visar påatt många olika faktorer spelar in för att arbetet med att minska isolering på häktetska fungera. Den höga beläggningen som råder leder till en ond cirkel i och medatt fullbeläggning leder till lokalbrist så påverkar det i sin tur arbetet med deisoleringsbrytande åtgärderna. / The purpose of this study has been to examine professionals experience of whatisolation does to the detained in prison and their experience of how prison workswith isolation-breaking measures. The study was made out of a qualitativeapproach, where six semi-structured interviews were conducted with professionalsthat had varying years of work experience. Results show that professionals can seethat isolation effects the detained both physically and mentally. The prisons arefull and detention time is long. Therefore, the isolation-breaking measures arenegatively affected by shortage of premises and also shortage of staff. Conclusionsshow that many different factors matter when working with reducing isolation.The high occupancy that prevails leads to a vicious circle of affecting the workwith isolation breaking measures.

The occurrence of water crises in many parts of the world raises the need to consider more efficient and sustainable consumption of water resources. As such, many cities have prioritised water demand management strategies, which are based on price and non-price mechanisms. The literature shows no consensus as to which of these measures are most effective for managing residential water demand. To understand the impact and effectiveness of these mechanisms, there is a need to understand how people respond to them. This requires understanding materials, meanings and competences (skills and know how) that people have, which constitute elements of social practice. In 2017 and 2018, the City of Cape Town (CoCT) ramped up their price and non-price mechanisms to encourage people to save water in response to a severe drought. These mechanisms included water restrictions, increased water tariffs, and the Day Zero communication campaign. However, little is known about how effective these measures were at encouraging people to save water. There is no clear documentation of how the public understands, interprets and incorporates these mechanisms into their own household water use practices. This study explores the impacts and effectiveness of the City of Cape Town’s price and non-price mechanisms on household water use practices during the water crisis. Using information obtained through semi-structured interviews with 20 individuals living in houses where they paid their water bills, a version of social practice theory is used as a lens to understand how respondents interpreted and responded to these mechanisms when it comes to residential water use practices. This allows for an assessment of which of the CoCT’s actions are more effective in achieving sustainable water use practices. Results show that price mechanisms (water tariffs) were considered to be ineffective and did not encourage people to save water. Non-price mechanisms (water restrictions and Day Zero communication campaign) were seen as having more impact on respondents, encouraging water conservation behaviour; especially when it comes to household indoor water use activities related to hygiene. Compared to other studies which have used estimates for the water demand function, this study conducted interviews directly with households on the impact of the mechanisms. This enabled this study to explain how and why household water use practices change in response to these measures. Such qualitative information is important and contributes to a field that often uses quantitative data to suggest whether price or non-price mechanisms are effective.

Syftet med studien var att undersöka om lättnader av corona-restriktioner har påverkat individers sociala interaktion och känslor gentemot att återgå till ett normalt samhälle.“Hur ser strukturen ut för människors stress och oro efter lättade covid-19 restriktioner och vad relaterar de till?”. Då det har visat sig att social distansering och att arbeta hemifrån kan ha negativa konsekvenser på den psykiska hälsan. Studien skapade ett mätinstrument som mäter människors känslor och upplevelser gentemot Sveriges lättade covid-19 restriktioner. En kvalitativ förstudie utfördes med två öppna frågor för att undersöka om individer upplever stress och oro inför återgång till ett normalt samhälle efter restriktioner. Därefter utfördes en kvantitativ enkätundersökning med ett icke slumpmässigt bekvämlighetsurval som var baserad på resultatet från förstudien. Urvalet (n=242) bestod av individer som har levt i Sverige under rådande restriktioner. En faktoranalys utfördes och resulterade i skalan Stress och Oro Efter Lättade covid-19 Restriktioner [SOELR] med fyra subskalor. Följaktligen utfördes en korrelationsanalys som visade att det fanns signifikanta samband mellan SOELR och subskalorna. Sammanfattningsvis känner individer i samhället en viss stress och oro inför sociala interaktioner och relationer, covid-19, hantering av symtom och ökade miljöombyten till följd av lättade restriktioner i samhället. / The aim of the study was to investigate if alleviated covid-19 restrictions has made an impact on individuals’ social interaction and feelings towards returning to a normal society. “How does the structure look like for individuals´ stress and worry post alleviated covid-19 restrictions and what do they relate to?”. Since it has previously shown that social distancing and working from home may have negative consequences on mental health. The study created a measurement that measures peoples’ feelings and experiences towards Sweden’s alleviated covid-19 restrictions. A qualitative pre-study was conducted with two open-ended questions in order to measure if individuals feel stress and worry towards returning to a normal society post restrictions. Thereafter a quantitative survey with a non-random convenience sample that was based on results from the pre-study. The sample (n=242) consisted of individuals’ that has lived in Sweden during the current restrictions. A factor analysis was conducted and resulted in the scale stress and worry post alleviated covid-19 restrictions [SOELR] containing four subscales. Consequently a correlational analysis showed significant correlations between SOELR and the subscales. In summary, individuals in society feel a certain amount of stress and worry for social interactions and relations, covid-19, dealing with symptoms and increase of changes in the setting post alleviated restrictions in society.

Syftet med denna sociologiska undersökning var att studera hur introverta individer har upplevt sin tillvaro innan och under Covid-19 pandemin i relation till en norm om extraversion. Studien har fokuserat på följande frågeställningar: Hur upplever introverta individer normen om extraversion? Hur upplever introverta individer att deras tillvaro har förändrats av Covid-19 pandemins utveckling? Hur upplever introverta individer att normen om extraversion har förändrats av Covid-19 pandemin? Ambitionen var att belysa problematiken med en extravert samhällsnorm vilket har genomförts utefter en hermeneutisk vetenskapsteoretisk ansats. Empiriinsamlingen baserades på åtta semi-strukturerade intervjuer med individer som identifierade sig som introverta. Studiens teoretiska ramverk bestod av Erving Goffmans (2014) dramaturgiska teori och Thomas J. Scheffs (1990) teori om sociala band vilka låg till grund för analysen av empirin.    Resultaten av studien påvisade att en norm om extraversion finns och påverkar introverta individers tillvaro negativt. Vidare kom studien fram till att introverta individer haft en övergripande positiv tillvaro under Covid-19 pandemin. Avslutningsvis visade studien på att normen om extraversion kvarstod efter det att Covid-19 pandemins restriktioner släppt. Detta innebar att en slutsats kunde dras om att normer har en stark inverkan på vårt samhälle och att förändring av dessa kan ta tid. / The aim of this study in sociology was to examine how introverted individuals have experienced their being before and during the Covid-19 pandemic in relation to a norm of extraversion. The study focused on the following questions: How do introverted individuals experience the norm of extraversion? How do introverted individuals experience that their being have been changed during the Covid-19 pandemic? How do introverted individuals experience that the norm of extraversion have changed due to the Covid-19 pandemic? The ambition was to illuminate the issue of an extraverted social norm, which have been done through a hermeneutic theoretical approach. The empirical collection are based on eight semi-structured interviews of individuals who identify themselves as introverts. The theoretical framework includes Erving Goffman´s (2014) dramaturgical theory and Thomas J. Scheff´s (1990) theory of social bonds.   The result indicated that a norm of extraversion exists and affects introverted individuals negatively. The study also shows that introverted individuals had an overall positive being during the Covid-19 pandemic. Finally, a conclusion was made that norms have a strong impact on our society and that changing them takes time, which refers to the experience that the extraverted norm remains after the Covid-19 pandemic restrictions have been lifted.

[pt] Nesta Tese, eu me concentro em desenvolvimentos sobre o filtro de Kalman sujeito a restrições lineares gerais. Há essencialmente três tipos de contribuições: (i) provas alternativas para resultados previamente estabelecidos na literatura sobre o filtro de Kalman com restrições; (ii) resultados que presumidamente destacam aspectos teóricos e metodológicos para modelagens em espaço de estado sob restrições; e (iii) aplicações que parecem ser inéditas até então em finanças (análise de investimentos) e em macroeconomia, nas quais os métodos propostos são ilustrados e avaliados. No final, eu sugiro algumas extensões adicionais sobre o tema, as quais, novamente, dividem-se em teoria, métodos e aplicações. / [en] In this Thesis, I bring the attention to developments on Kalman filtering subject to general linear constraints. There are essentially three kinds of contributions: (i) new proofs for already established results within the restricted Kalman filtering literature; (ii) new results which are supposed to shed light on theoretical and methodological frameworks for linear state space modeling under linear restrictions; and (iii) applications that seem to be new in investment analysis and in macroeconomics, where the proposed methods are illustrated and evaluated. At the end, I suggest some further extensions in the subject, which, again, step into theory, methods and applications.

This thesis examines the potential effects of a price cap sanction on semi-finished steel products against the Russian steel industry. The research question is: "What are the effects on the Russian economy of a price cap on semi-finished steel products?”. By constructing a theoretical model and applying empirically-based parameters, estimation of the sanction's effects on Russia and the world is possible. The findings suggest that a severe price cap, such as capping Russian steel prices at 72 $/tonne (90 % of original price), only results in a 2,7 % decrease in supplied quantity but causes a significant loss of profit (approximately 10 billion dollars annually). In the long-run, market rebalancing somewhat diminishes these losses. An alternative model however indicates that Russian exporters would cease exports at a minimum price of 502,5 $/tonne, leading to a dramatic increase in global prices. Therefore, a recommended price cap of 30 % or less of the current market price is advised – leading to 3,4 billion dollars in annual Russian losses. This study contributes to the understanding of sanctions as an economic tool and informs the ongoing debate on the efficacy of price cap sanctions against a sizable economy like Russia's and on inelastic products such as semi-steel.

This dissertation explores the interaction of syntax and morphology in the morpholog- ical realization of AGREE-relations. I present two case studies of derivational interactions of AGREE-processes where the morphological realization of the later processes are affected by the earlier ones. The two cases studied differ in the way probes and goals interact. The first part of the dissertation explores restrictions on clitic combinations where two goals vie for the features of one probe. The second part discusses the reverse situation, where two probes are agreeing with the same goal. The first configuration arises in restrictions on clitic combinations where v can AGREE with an indirect object and a direct object one at a time (Anagnostopoulou 2003, 2005b, Béjar and Rezác 2003). These configurations give rise to a form of competition: the sec- ond argument will fail to AGREE in any features that it shares with the first. I show that this form of competition extends from restrictions involving local person arguments, where it has been used so far, to restrictions involving third person and plural, which have so far been treated as morphological. Whereas the restrictions on local person lead to ungrammaticality, those on third person and plural result in impoverished morphological realization. I argue that this difference indicates a different role of AGREE for local person vs. third person and plural. Recent work as shown that local person has special syntactic licensing needs (e.g. Béjar and Rezác 2003, Baker 2008, Preminger 2011b). Third person and plural on the other hand, I argue, are syntactically wellformed on their own, but require AGREE to be visible to lexical insertion at PF. Failure to AGREE will lead to absence of morphological realization or ungrammaticality as a function of the features involved. Once restrictions on third person arguments are treated as syntactic, much of the variation across languages in their morphological realization follows from differences in the PF-inventory. The second situation, two probes AGREEING with the same goal, arises in agreement with objects in Hindi-Urdu. The second part of the dissertation discusses two asymmetries in agreement of T with subjects and objects in conjunction structures. While T-agreement with objects shows sensitivity to linear order (i.a. closest conjunct agreement), T-agreement with subjects does not. I argue that the differences follow from the activity of the goal at the time of agreement. While subjects are syntactically active at the time T probes them, objects are not, because they have already been assigned case by v. As a consequence, the syntactic relation between T and an object cannot value the T's probe in the syntax. Non- syntactic effects like the relevance of linear order affect agreement exactly when valuation cannot be achieved in the syntax. Both case studies lead to the proposal that syntactically wellformed derivations can be ruled out at PF by failure of lexical insertion. This can happen in two ways. The discus- sion of restrictions on clitic combinations will lead to the conclusion that some languages allow the syntax to generate wellformed structures that contain nodes with so few features that PF cannot insert an exponent for them. The discussion of agreement in Hindi-Urdu will lead to the proposal that the grammar can generate feature bundles with inconsistent features that cannot be spelled out in one form. Overall, PF does both less and more than is often assumed. The restrictions on third person and plural discussed in the first part are traditionally considered to be the result of morphological operations that change the feature content of clitics (Bonet 1991, 1993, 1995, Grimshaw 1997, Noyer 1997). The proposal here reduces the role of PF in these restrictions to spelling out syntactic structures that have reduced feature content as the result of syntactic interactions. Similarly, the proposal about Hindi-Urdu tightly delimits the space where non-syntactic effects on agreement arise. At the same time, PF can rule out syntactically wellformed structures, which is not typically assumed to be possible.