Diss. Linköping : Univ., 2004.

The xenophobic attitudes in Europe are stronger than even. Never before have the member states had as many right-wing parties in action. The aim with this report is therefore to consider whether the Schengen cooperation has had an influence on the development of xenophobia in the member states of EU. The Schengen cooperation became a part of the European Union in 1997, with the aim to abolish the internal border controls for citizens and strengthen the external boarders towards non-members. The intention is furthermore to investigate whether the distance to Schengen ́s external boarder has an impact on the xenophobic attitudes. Three countries are compared: Italy, Netherlands and the United Kingdom. The comparison is based on three indicators: immigration, right-wing parties and the economic situation. Italy is the most xenophobic country like the hypothesis of the report did foresee. Italy and Netherlands are both members of the cooperation and more xenophobic than the United Kingdom. United Kingdom is on the other hand not a member of the cooperation. Consequently are member states of the Schengen cooperation more xenophobic than others.

Den här uppsatsens syfte är att utveckla Carnegieskolans organisationsteori med en kompletterande teoretisering om hur organisationer hanterar sin invävdhet i meta-organisationer när de fattar beslut och handlar. För att möta syftet fokuserar uppsatsen vid att integrera Carnegieskolans teoribildning med Ahrne & Brunssons teori om metaorganisationer för att utveckla en teori om medlemskap i metaorganisationer som en särskild typ av invävdhet och beskriva hur organisationer relaterar till sitt medlemskap i beslutsfattande och handling. Uppsatsens empiriska del består i en jämförande fallstudie över hur regeringskansliet agerat i samband med medlemskapen i Schengensamarbetet respektive FN:s hållbarhetsagenda, Agenda 2030. Resultaten visar att regeringskansliet svarar mot invävdheten genom aktivering och riktning av enskilda delar av sin organisation mot meta-organisationen för att hantera sådana krav och förväntningar som medlemskapet medför. Resultaten visar därtill på hur invävdheten inverkat på regeringskansliets strukturer för beslutsfattande genom att organisationen integrerade element ur metaorganisationen i sina interna beslutsstrukturer för att underlätta beslutsfattande och konflikthantering. Studien visar även på hur medlemskap i meta-organisationen på ett avsiktligt rationellt sätt används som en extern referenspunkt att rikta regeringskansliets arbete mot. Uppsatsen bidrar till organisationsteorin med begreppet aktivering från ett inomorganisatoriskt perspektiv, en beskrivning av hur medlemskap i internationella meta-organisationer inverkar på regeringskansliets beslutsfattande och handling, liksom med grunder för en fördjupad teoretisk förståelse av vilken roll medlemskap tilldelas inom en medlemsorganisation och varför organisationer aktivt väljer att väva in sina beslutsstrukturer i sin omgivning. / The purpose of this thesis is to further develop the organizational theory of the Carnegie school by contributing a theorization of how organizations handle being embedded in meta-organizations when making decisions and acting. To meet this purpose, the thesis focuses on integrating the theory of the Carnegie school with Ahrne & Brunssons theory of meta-organizations to develop a theory of membership in metaorganizations as a certain type of embeddedness and describe how organizations relate to their membership in decision-making and action. The empirical part of the thesis consists of a comparative cross-case study concerning how the government offices of Sweden responded to becoming members in the Schengen Area and the UN:s Agenda 2030 for sustainable development. The thesis’ results shows that the government offices responded to their embeddedness by activating and directing certain parts of its organization towards the meta-organization in order to handle the demands and expectations the membership entailed. The results further show that the embeddedness has affected the government offices’ structures for decision-making as the organization has integrated elements from the meta-organization into its own decision-structures to facilitate decision-making and handling conflicts. The thesis also show how membership in a meta-organization is used as an external point of reference for the organization’s operations in an intendedly rational way. The thesis thereby contributes to organizational theory with the concept of activation from a within-organizational perspective, a description of how membership in meta-organizations affect decision-making and action within the government offices, as well as foundations for a further theoretical understanding of the role membership is assigned within a member-organization and why organizations actively choose to embed their decision-structures in their environment.

This thesis analyses police officers' work with internal control of foreigners through a discussion of, among other things, the nation-state, rule of law ideals as well as the police profession and the conditions surrounding that profession. Internal control of foreigners, practised by police officers has two main aims: to control migration and to fight crime amongst people unauthorised to reside in the country. There has been a demand for increased efficiency in the internal control of foreigners, since Sweden joined the Schengen agreement. Police officers are now expected to be observant in all their work carried out, of the possibility that people they encounter are in the country without permission. The authors have accompanied police officers in Malmö and Stockholm in their work. They have also studied cases in the legal system and of the special board that handles cases of offences made by police officers. The authors discuss the importance of different factors to the police work on internal control of foreigners. Certain factors are more important than others and there is an interplay and reinforcement of some of these: the political and historical context, the discretion of the police, grey areas in the rules, the work tools of the police as well as inspection possibilities. A state of tension can be identified between the ideals of the nation-state and rule of law ideals. Several factors interplay to create a potential for and an apparent risk of ethnic discrimination in the police work on the internal control of foreigners. This study shows that the prerequisites necessary to perform the control efficiently, unerringly and with proper discretion are lacking. Police officers are put to the almost impossible task of determining who is in the country without permission.

Arbetet tar sikte på de rättsliga förutsättningarna kopplade till skjutvapenanvändning inom ramen för det gränsöverskridande polissamarbete som planeras mellan Norge och Sverige. Frågeställningen uppkommer mot bakgrund av den gemensamma polisstation som ska uppföras på gränsen mellan de två länderna, som ska inhysa norska och svenska polisanställda. En av målsättningarna med detta varaktiga samarbete är operativ samverkan, där polis ska kunna ingripa på båda sidor gränsområdet, oavsett om deras territoriella tillhörighet är norsk eller svensk. Uppsatsen huvudrubrik är en parafras på devisen ”ingen skatt utan lag” (nullum tributum sine lege), ett uttryck för den legalitetsprincip som är central både inom det skatterättsliga och det straffrättsliga området. Vidare anspelar underrubriken om gränslöshet på att territorialgränsen inte ska utgöra något hinder för brottsbekämpning myndigheter, och inte om någon vårdslöshet från polisens sida. Arbetets syfte är att utreda de förutsättningar som föreligger för ett gränsöverskridande, operativt samarbete, samt vilka rättsliga hinder som finns för ett sådant samarbete och hur dessa kan åtgärdas. Utifrån de konstitutionella och folkrättsliga utgångspunkterna krävs för svenskt vidkommande att en lag om utländska tjänstepersoners befogenhet att vidta myndighetsåtgärder på svensk mark stiftas. Samarbetet som sådant behöver fastställas i en bilateral överenskommelse mellan Norge och Sverige i syfte att åstadkomma en förbindelse i folkrättslig bemärkelse. I arbetet utreds de internationella överenskommelser som länderna ingått beträffande gränsöverskridande polisiärt samarbete. Både Sverige och Norge har antagit Schengenkonventionen och Prümrådsbeslutet, och har ingått en rad nordiska samarbeten om polisiär samverkan. Sverige har anslutit sig till Atlasrådsbeslutet, vilket Norge inte har gjort. Däremot har ett bilateralt avtal med liknande bestämmelser som det i Atlasrådsbeslutet träffats mellan Sverige och Norge. Vidare jämförs svensk och norsk nationell lagstiftning, särskilt inom polisrättens område. Ländernas lagstiftning är relativt närliggande, med liknande struktur och uppbyggnad. En skillnad i ländernas respektive lagstiftning utgörs dock av de regleringar som omgärdar polisens tjänstevapen. Svensk polis bär skjutvapen på kroppen i tjänstgöring, medan den norska polisen förvarar skjutvapen i tjänstebilen. I normalfallet ska norsk polis inhämta godkännande från operationscentralen för att få använda tjänstevapnet i varje enskild situation. Skillnaden medför svårigheter avseende den operativa del som planeras i det gränsöverskridande samarbetet, då svensk polis i nuläget inte kan operera beväpnade på norsk mark.   Skillnaden mellan respektive lands syn på polisens beväpning innebär att en fullskalig operativ verksamhet inte kan företas av svensk polis på norskt territorium. För att harmonisera rätten krävs lagstiftning på området. Eftersom en majoritet inom den norska poliskåren ställer sig positiva till att bära vapen permanent, tycks det finnas bättre förutsättningar för en sådan lagändring att ske från norskt håll än att svensk polis anpassar sig efter den norska synen på vapen. Skulle svensk polis övergå till att, inom ramen för samarbetet, låsa in sina vapen när de företar ingripanden på norskt territorium, innebär det att de frångår sin starkt förankrade princip gällande att svensk polis ska vara beväpnad i yttre tjänst. / The aim of the thesis is to investigate the legal conditions connected to the use of firearms within the cross-boundary police cooperation that is planned between Norway and Sweden. The question at issue is based on the joint police station that is to be built on the border between the two countries, which will house both Norwegian and Swedish police officials. One of the main targets of this permanent cooperation is operative collaboration, in the terms of police being able to intervene on both sides of the border, no matter their territorial residence. The main heading of the thesis is a paraphrase on the expression “no taxes without a legal basis” (nullum tributum sine lege), expressing the principle of legality which is central to both fiscal- and criminal law. Moreover, the sub-heading on borderlessness alludes to the thought of the territorial limit not constituting a barrier for the law enforcement authorities, and not to any carelessness on behalf of the police. The purpose of the thesis is to investigate the conditions for a cross-boundary, operative cooperation, together with the legal obstacles that exists for such a cooperation and how these can be addressed. Due to the constitutional and international basis that is required from a Swedish standpoint, foreign officials’ authority to carry out official duties on Swedish territory must be legislated. The cooperation per se must be established in a bilateral agreement between Norway and Sweden in order to reach a connection in the sense of international law. In the thesis, the international agreements which both countries have entered regarding the cross-boundary police cooperation are examined. Both Sweden and Norway have implemented the Schengen convention and the Prüm agreement, and they have agreed to several Nordic agreements regarding police cooperation. Sweden has implemented the Atlas Network Agreement, which Norway has not. However, Norway and Sweden have entered a bilateral agreement based on a similar content as the Atlas Agreement. Furthermore, the national legislation of Sweden and Norway are compared, especially within the area of police law. The legislations are relatively adjacent, as to the structure and formation. One difference between the countries’ separate legislations is shown by the rules surrounding the service weapons used by the police. Swedish police officers carry firearms attached to the body while in service, whereas the Norwegian police officers contain their firearms in the patrol car. Normally, Norwegian police officers must receive permission from the operational centre in order to use the service weapon in any situation. This difference in legislation entails difficulties concerning the operative tasks that are planned within the cross-boundary cooperation, as Swedish police cannot operate armed on Norwegian territory in the current situation.   The difference in each country’s view on arming the police means that a full-scale operational establishment cannot be undertaken by Swedish police on Norwegian territory. In order to harmonise the law, there needs to be legislative measures on the subject. Since a majority of the Norwegian police officials have a positive stance in regards of permanently carrying weapons, there seems to be a better position to carry out such an amendment of the law in Norway, as opposed to the Swedish police conforming to the Norwegian approach on firearms. If the Swedish police were to lock their weapons in the patrol car when carrying out official duties in Norwegian territory as a part of the collaboration, it would implicate that they abandon the firmly established principle of being armed when performing patrol duty.