Den här uppsatsen tar upp hur nyblivna journalister i Ryssland ser på yttrandefrihet och hur deras utbildning tog upp frågan. Jag har ställt frågan på tre områden: yttrandefrihet, ägarinflytande och farorna med att arbete med journalistik i Ryssland. Jag har utgått från ansvariga skolledares beskrivningar av journalistutbildningar och även Svetlana Pastis (2010)undersökning av nyblivna journalister på 00-talet. Mina resultat bekräftar och kompletterar Pastis resultat. Undersökningen består av kvalitativa undersökningsintervjuer med nyblivna journalister från Moskva som ändå hunnit med att arbeta i minst ett år. Resultatet blev att de intervjuade inte känner sig påverkade av brister i yttrandefriheten, även om de är medvetnaom att bristerna finns där. De intervjuade har valt att undvika att arbeta med ämnen där kontrollen är hög och där det kan finnas risker. Ägarkontroll av medier ser de intervjuade som normalt. Även om utbildningen i sig är fri leder inte det till fria journalister. Det verkar som att de intervjuade inte tycker att det är något problem med mediesystemet i Ryssland och de har valt att anpassa sig till det.

den här uppsatsen undersöker jag hur svenska rapmusiker ser på sina möjligheter att uttrycka sig fritt efter uppståndelsen kring den så kallade Mr-Cool affären. Resultatet bygger på intervjuer med sex svenska rappare och tyder på att dessa inte låtit sig påverkas i någon större utsträckning, men studien visar samtidigt på att svenska rappare har en stark artistisk integritet och ett motstånd mot mainstreamkulturen i samhället. Moralpanik och yttrande- och skapandefrihet som studien delvis berör visar sig även engagera dem på ett personligt plan.

The discussions about cyber hate has become a burning question, and there is an increasing debate about the conflict of interests between the freedom of speech and how to avoid online content that offends the personal integrity. It is often reported that celebrities have been targets of the harmful comments, but cyber hate is something that can affect us all.  With the development of the Internet, more people have been able to make their voice heard and to participate actively in the public debate. Scientists believe that the Internet promotes a free exchange of opinions and improves democracy. The question is though whether it actually could lead to the opposite? The climate on the Internet gets tougher, and we see that some people use the social media comment fields in order to hurt and offend others. There is a risk that the fear of becoming a victim of cyber hate becomes greater than the will to say what you want, without limitations. This leads to widespread self-censorship and that people might feel inhibited when expressing themselves on the Internet. The aim of this thesis is to investigate a possible link between cyber hate and self-censorship, in relation to the public space and free, open and respectful debates. Through this paper we have found that there is a relationship between cyber hate and the degree of self-censorship. People affected by cyber hate tend to increase their way of censoring themselves when publishing on the Internet, although in different ways and extent.

Online harassment against journalists on various social forums is a debated topic. This study aims to research what threats and hatred can give for consequences for Swedish journalists. Sweden has democratic rights, such as the freedom of expression to be able to report freely in society. The online trolls also have freedom of expression to be allowed to express themselves freely in images and text, but how are journalists affected when the online trolls threaten and hate on the web? To research what this problem looks like, we have proceeded from a qualitative interview study, which is based on eleven interviews with journalists who have been exposed to threats, harassment or hatred online. We have started from the theories of self-censorship, gender and sex, gender role and social role theory. The purpose of these theories is to get an idea of how the gender portrayal and the different social roles diverges between the male and female journalists. Self-censorship refers to whether journalists unconsciously censor themselves out of fear and to protect themselves and their family members. The results of the study show that the respondents perceive that it is men who hatres on the web the most. Female journalists receive more sexist hate comments than male journalists. Women react more strongly to online hatred and take on various support and protection measures, which men do not do in the same way. There are also differences between the sexes in how the view of cyber hatred is perceived. Women take it more seriously and men see it as a minor problem. The harassment on the web leads to self- censorship. Female journalists self-censor more than male journalists. It is easier to silence women than it is to silence men. The journalists' perception of online hatred is that it has gotten worse since the development of digitalisation and when social media came. Respondents see threats and hatred against journalists as a democratic problem for society.

Den här uppsatsen undersöker hur åtta journalister vid lokala medieföretag i Sverige påverkas av hot och hat i sitt yrke och hur de ser på självcensur. Åtta journalister från olika lokalmedier runt om i Sverige har intervjuats genom kvalitativa intervjuer och resultatet visar att kvinnliga journalister upplever mer frekventa och allvarliga hot jämfört med sina manliga kollegor, men det rapporterades inte om fysiskt våld direkt relaterat till deras yrke. Journalisterna visade generellt brist på rädsla för konflikter eller repressalier trots näthat och skrämmande situationer. De betonade sitt åtagande för den journalistiska integriteten och korrektheten. De visade också en stark vilja att undvika självcensur och upprätthålla journalistikens etik och pressfrihet, även när de erkände potentiella påtryckningar från arbetsgivare eller externa krafter. Sammanfattningsvis belyser studien det komplexa samspel mellan journalistikens integritet, yttre påtryckningar och det förändrade medielandskapet och ger insikt om utmaningarna och möjligheterna som journalisterna står inför i dagens samhälle.

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This thesis examines how librarians, in their own point of view, can and do handle influences on their daily work routines. The main focus is on whether the librarians’ experiences suggest that these influences lead to self-censorship in how media and information is acquired, handled and distributed. The contrast between the librari-ans’ actual and ideal situations, regarding their perceived freedom to act, are also examined. Seven librarians from different fields and different parts of Sweden are questioned using semi-structured interviews. The results are analyzed using models of self-censorship from Bar-Tal and Beckman as well as an influential article on selection and censorship in libraries from Asheim. A closer reading of the librarians’ stories finds four recurring themes: Perceived autonomy and freedom, Motives and context, Examples of influence and self-censorship and Ideals and reailty. The themes are analyzed in depth, with key quotes from the librarians serving as illustrations, using the aforementioned theoretical models as tools. From these analyses, the following conclusions are drawn: Preceptions of autonomy and workload in-fluence how librarians view their freedom to propose new ideas and handle media and information in accordance with their ideals. There also seems to exist a discrepancy regarding the librarians’ expected flexibility with rules and routines, leading to confusion among the librarians. Furthermore, disinclinations towards discussion in the workplace are common when the topics are controversial, such as the removal of racist material, and attempts at discussion are often ignored. Lastly, proximity to the end users also influence the librarians, leading to an increased risk of bias in selection and weeding processes. Together these things influence how librarians cope with management of collections and activities, as well as how they treat colleagues and end users, in the context of self-censorship. The conclusions, as well as their effects on librarians, libraries and society as a whole, are then discussed. This is a two years master's thesis in Library and information science.

Violence against women journalists is increasing all over the world, especially online, and previous research shows that journalists develop different strategies to avoid harassment. Costa Rica is the country in Latin America that has the highest level of press freedom but that does not mean that harassment is non-existing. However, there is little research to be found on how the work of women journalists in Costa Rica is affected by harassment and which strategies they use to avoid it. Through nine semi- structured qualitative interviews with women journalists in Costa Rica, this Minor Field Study examines how the work of women journalists in Costa Rica is affected by harassment, threats, digital attacks, and physical violence. The interviews reveal that harassment against female journalists in Costa Rica occur today, and during the journalists’ careers they have experienced online violence, physical violence, sexual harassment and pressure. The harassment comes from bosses, colleagues, sources, trolls, the audience, and the government. The journalists develop strategies like self- censorship, changing occupations and avoiding being alone with bosses and sources. Some also block people and comments on social media, confront the harasser or try to ignore the harassment. Harassment does also affect the journalists’ feelings in a negative way and many women state that the harassment affects their journalistic work. The reasons for why they think they are exposed are because they are women, the macho culture in Costa Rica, and because of the president. The topics and the news media outlet also have an impact. Most of the participants feel like harassment is worse today than what it has been, even though there are more laws today. The results are discussed in relation to the theories Gender in the newsroom, The chilling effect, Affective Events Theory and Intersectionality. To summarize, harassment against women journalists in Costa Rica do affect their daily journalistic work.