社群媒體迅速普及，連帶社群商務益發受到重視。本研究藉助S-O-R模型，期能以建立使用者之行為模式觀點的架構探討社群商務參與意圖。本研究中，欲探討營造社會臨場感的關鍵技術性特質對於社會臨場感的影響，進而對於促成參與意圖的效果，並瞭解媒體豐富性的調節作用。本研究蒐集相關文獻，並設計問卷、透過大量樣本進行研究模型驗證。 本研究共回收1218份有效問卷，並透過最小平方法(PLS)進行有效樣本之實證分析。研究結果發現，感知社交性是營造社會臨場感的關鍵技術性特質；同時，臨場感對參與意圖也有顯著的正向影響。即在社群平台上的社交氛圍、能與好友們社交互動，是最能使人感受到身歷其境的臨場感，也最能使人產生社群商務的參與意圖。 根據研究結果，本研究建議發展社群商務的過程中，在建置社群平台時，需要考量的技術性特質應特別著力於社交性內涵，如此是能產生社會臨場感，以及愈能促成社群商務參與意圖。 / Social media is well widespread, so is Social Commerce. With the use of the S-O-R Model, this study expects to establish a comprehensive structure to investigate the social commerce intention. This research proposes a view on the effect of technological features and social presence on social commerce. This study intends to identify the key technological features which enhance the perception of social presence. Furthermore, we intend to understand whether social presence contributes to the social commerce intention and the moderating effect of the media richness. We collected relevant literature, designed the questionnaire and validated the research model. A total of 1218 valid samples were collected to validate the research model. The result shows that perceived sociability is the key technological feature that leads to the perceived social presence, and social presence positively impacts social commerce intention. The analysis results imply that by making a great effort to enhance users' perceived social presence, social platform marketers can expect fruitful business result.

Les interfaces cerveau-ordinateur basées sur l’imagerie mentale (MI-BCIs) offrent de nouvelles possibilités d’interaction avec les technologies numériques, telles que les neuroprothèses ou les jeux vidéo, uniquement en effectuant des tâches d’imagerie mentale, telles qu’imaginer d’un objet en rotation. La reconnaissance de la commande envoyée au système par l’utilisateur repose sur l’analyse de l’activité cérébrale de ce dernier. Les utilisateurs doivent apprendre à produire des patterns d’activité cérébrale reconnaissables par le système afin de contrôler les MI-BCIs. Cependant, les protocoles de formation actuels ne permettent pas à 10 à 30 % des personnes d’acquérir les compétences nécessaires pour utiliser les MI-BCIs. Ce manque de fiabilité des BCIs limite le développement de la technologie en dehors des laboratoires de recherche. Cette thèse a pour objectif d’examiner comment le feedback fourni tout au longde la formation peut être amélioré et adapté aux traits et aux états des utilisateurs. Dans un premier temps, nous examinons le rôle qui est actuellement donné au feedback dans les applications et les protocoles d’entraînement à l’utilisation des MI-BCIs. Nous analysons également les théories et les contributions expérimentales discutant de son rôle et de son utilité dans le processus d’apprentissage de contrôle de correlats neurophysiologiques. Ensuite, nous fournissons une analyse de l’utilité de différents feedback pour l’entraînement à l’utilisation des MI-BCIs. Nous nous concentrons sur trois caractéristiques principales du feedback, i.e., son contenu, sa modalité de présentation et enfin sa dimension temporelle. Pour chacune de ces caractéristiques, nous avons examiné la littérature afin d’évaluer quels types de feedback ont été testés et quel impact ils semblent avoir sur l’entraînement. Nous avons également analysé quels traits ou états des apprenants influaient sur les résultats de cet entraînement. En nous basant sur ces analyses de la littérature, nous avons émis l’hypothèse que différentes caractéristiques du feedback pourraient être exploitées afin d’améliorer l’entraînement en fonction des traits ou états des apprenants. Nous rapportons les résultats de nos contributions expérimentales pour chacune des caractéristiques du feedback. Enfin, nous présentons différentes recommandations et défis concernant chaque caractéristique du feedback. Des solutions potentielles sont proposées pour à l’avenir surmonter ces défis et répondre à ces recommandations. / Mental-Imagery based Brain-Computer Interfaces (MI-BCIs) present new opportunities to interact with digital technologies, such as neuroprostheses or videogames, only by performing mental imagery tasks, such as imagining an object rotating. The recognition of the command for the system is based on the analysis of the brain activity of the user. The users must learn to produce brain activity patterns that are recognizable by the system in order to control BCIs. However, current training protocols do not enable 10 to 30% of persons to acquire the skills required to use BCIs. The lack of robustness of BCIs limit the development of the technology outside of research laboratories. This thesis aims at investigating how the feedback provided throughout the training can be improved and adapted to the traits and states of the users. First, we investigate the role that feedback is currently given in MI-BCI applications and training protocols. We also analyse the theories and experimental contributions discussing its role and usefulness. Then, we review the different feedback that have been used to train MI-BCI users. We focus on three main characteristics of feedback, i.e., its content, its modality of presentation and finally its timing. For each of these characteristics, we reviewed the literature to assess which types of feedback have been tested and what is their impact on the training. We also analysed which traits or states of the learners were shown to influence BCI training outcome. Based on these reviews of the literature, we hypothesised that different characteristics of feedback could be leveraged to improve the training of the learners depending on either traits or states. We reported the results of our experimental contributions for each of the characteristics of feedback. Finally, we presented different recommendations and challenges regarding each characteristic of feedback. Potential solutions were proposed to meet these recommendations in the future.

Genuine Forschungsdesigns zum Thema Social Presence in spielbasierten Lernumgebungen lagen bisher noch nicht im Fokus der Wissenschaft oder entsprechenden Forschungs‐ und Entwicklungsabteilungen der Hersteller von Game-Based-Learning-Software. Die vorhandenen Untersuchungen zu diesem Themenkomplex bezogen sich bislang entweder auf Social Presence in Computerspielen oder auf Social Presence in virtuellen Lernumgebungen, die nicht als Spiel umgesetzt worden sind. Spiel und Lernen wurden also bereits getrennt voneinander auf Social Presence untersucht, aber beide Konzepte empirisch noch nicht hinreichend zusammengebracht. Zukünftige Projekte müssen versuchen, diese Aspekte zu integrieren, um die Bedeutung von Social Presence im Kontext des spielbasierten Lernens valide einordnen zu können. Nachfolgend werden als Einführung zunächst Konzepte und Ergebnisse aus den Bereichen Social Presence im Videospiel und Social Presence beim Lernen vorgestellt, um im Anschluss daran erste Implikationen für die Gestaltung von GBL-Umgebungen abzuleiten.

I och med att undervisningen på distans ökar i popularitet så läggs det större vikt på distansstudenternas välmående. Distansundervisning bedrivs dock i nuläget på ett sätt som motsätter sig studerandes efterfrågan om social gemenskap vilket skapar en känsla av isolering. Att berika lärplattformar med sociala affordanser och element från sociala nätverkssajter är ett försök att öka social närvaro på lärplattformar. I denna uppsats utforskas hur samhörigheten mellan distansstudenter kan förbättras på lärplattformar och vilka affordanser som kan berika lärplattformar utöver de som redan har beforskats. Studien resulterar i 2 element (Integritet och Samarbete), 3 sociala affordanser (Social anslutning, Social interaktion och Profilbyggnad) och 1 innehållsaffordans (Innehållsdelning) som har identifierats utifrån respondenternas preferenser i förhållande till sociala nätverkssajter. Funktionaliteterna som kopplas samman med dessa identifierade element och affordanser gestaltas genom en skiss i resultatet. Detta för att förtydliga hur en möjlig applicering på lärplattformar kan förbättra kommunikationen och den sociala närvaron mellan de studerande. / As distance education is increasing in popularity more emphasis is placed on the wellbeing of distance students. However, distance education is currently conducted in a way that opposes students’ demand for social community, which creates a feeling of isolation. Enriching learning management platforms with social affordances and elements from social networking sites is an attempt to increase social presence on learning management platforms. This essay explores how to improve the relationship between distance students on learning management platforms and which affordances may enrich learning management platforms besides those that have already been researched. The study results in 2 elements (Privacy and Collaboration), 3 social affordances (Social connectivity, Social interactivity and Profile building) and 1 content affordance (Content sharing) that has been identified based on the respondents preferences in relation to social networking sites. The functionalities associated with these identified elements and affordances are presented through a sketch in the result. This is to clarify how a possible application on learning platforms can improve communication and the social presence between the students.

La evolución de las nuevas tecnologías y el uso creciente de la redes sociales ha desencadenado un nuevo modelo de comercialización a través de ellas llamado social commerce. Este es una manera de comprar productos o servicios mediante las redes sociales, además, durante el proceso los usuarios pueden animarse a comprar conjuntamente con otros usuarios en las distintas comunidades existentes en redes sociales tales como grupos cerrados, foros, reseñas, vídeos, etcétera. En este contexto, existen diferentes variables que pueden influenciar a que el usuario compre, como son: la confianza, el precio, la calidad de información y la presencia social estas, van a determinar o incrementar su intención de compra. Es por ello que los vendedores online en redes sociales, especialmente las tiendas por departamento, deben tomar en cuenta los constructos dentro del comercio social que ayudan a incrementar la intención de compra de los usuarios. En el presente trabajo, buscamos analizar qué tan importante son los constructos mencionados en la intención de compra en un contexto peruano y como las tiendas por departamento pueden mejorar o aplicar el comercio social. Además, se va a determinar cual es el grado de significancia de cada uno de los constructos mencionados con relación a la intención de compra en el social commerce. Finalmente, esperamos que la investigación pueda seguir contribuyendo con la literatura de este nuevo modelo de comercialización. / The evolution of new technologies and the growing use of social networks has triggered a new marketing model through them called social commerce. This is a way to buy products or services through social networks, in addition, during the process users can be encouraged to buy together with other users in the different existing communities on social networks such as closed groups, forums, reviews, videos, etc. In this context, there are different variables that can influence the user to buy, such as: trust, price, quality of information and social presence, these will determine or increase their purchase intention. That is why online sellers in social networks, especially department stores, must take into account the constructs within social commerce that help increase the purchase intention of users. In this paper, we seek to analyze how important the constructs mentioned are in the purchase intention in a Peruvian context and how department stores can improve or apply social commerce. In addition, the degree of significance of each of the constructs in relation to the purchase intention in social commerce will be determined. Finally, we hope that research can continue to contribute to the literature on this new marketing model. / Trabajo de investigación

<p>Social presence positively influences the motivation, satisfaction, retention, and learning outcomes of online students. Although it is crucial for successful online learning experiences, little work has thoroughly examined the evolution of social presence over time and the influence of social presence on peer interaction. In other words, if social presence can be learned by interacting with others. This three-article dissertation study elucidates this gap by answering the overarching question: How does online students' social presence evolve over time to shape their online learning behaviors? Using stochastic-actor oriented models to reflect the dependence among learners in online collaborative learning communities, this dissertation investigated how learners' social presence evolved in learner-learner interaction resulting in two empirical studies and one conceptual framework. The first study explored social presence through clickstream interaction (e.g., number of replies received/sent in an online discussion) of 382 learners enrolled in a Massive Open Online Course. Three key findings from the study were: 1) dropout rates could be lowered if social presence affordances are used purposefully; 2) adding social media characteristics to online discussion boards, for example, "like" buttons, inhibits conversational behavior, and eventually, decreases achievement of learning outcomes; and 3) the "rich-get-richer" effect also applies to social presence, reinforcing highly active students' behavior and risking inactive online students to experience isolation. The second study used peer-nomination data (i.e., asking students who they interact with) and a scale to investigate the spread of social presence perceptions in online networks of students over three consecutive courses (n = 197). Although there was no evidence of social influence, online learners who nominated more peers are more likely to report higher social presence perceptions over time. Students were not more likely to share with those who showed similar levels of social presence. The "rich-get-richer effect" was observed in the incoming nominations of learners. The third study is a conceptual framework that integrates network theory and the online learning literature into a new perspective to analyze learners' online behaviors and interactions under the light of social presence theory. The proposed framework includes four main steps: 1) interaction, 2) social presence alignment, 3) unit of analysis definition, and 3) network statistics and inferential analysis selection. The findings of this dissertation improve educational practice by identifying behaviors that harm online social presence and providing specific actions for online instructors and instructional designers to promote social presence in online learning.  </p>

Interaction is a core element in the design of blended and distance learning environments. The importance of understanding these interactions and what might increase effectiveness of such interactions in education is paramount for meaningful learning. This dissertation consists of two qualitative case studies designed to provide a rich, descriptive look at interactions in a high school distance/blended-learning context in the home-study and technology-meditated seminary program of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. In the study article, Moore's (1989) interaction framework was used as a lens for understanding the learner experience. Thematic narratives were used to highlight themes related to students' perceived learning gains from learner-content interaction and their hesitancy to engage in learner-learner and learner-instructor interactions if they had not met personally. In the second study, Garrison's (2007) Community of Inquiry framework was used to understand the impact that teacher decisions, other than the selection of content, had on the cognitive and social climate of the learning experience. This study describes how a teacher's facilitation of social interaction influences the course learning outcomes. The results highlight the teacher's role in providing the educational and social climate needed to foster learner interactions. This study noted that when the teachers gave learners the opportunity to interact in a live setting, it appeared to foster the relationships needed to interact online. The narratives also highlight how a teacher helped learners interact with one another around content online.

In online learning, little is known about the impact of mixed reality and its underlying socio-technological factors on social space perceived by learners. The term social space refers to a group's socio-emotional dynamics that structure the social relationships among its members. Drawing upon extant literature on mixed reality, interaction and social presence, this research proposes and validates a theoretical model that elucidates the influence of immersion on users’ social space experiences within digital environments across different mixed realities (i.e., augmented and virtual realities, and video conferencing). Interaction and social presence are identified as two key factors mediating this relationship. To test the proposed model, a survey involving 488 participants in higher education was conducted, and the effects were examined under three conditions: video conferencing, augmented-reality, and virtual-reality. The findings show that 1) an immersion perspective plays a significant role in educational technology, particularly for its role in facilitating social space among learners in higher education; 2) the impact of immersion on social space is entirely mediated by learners’ assessment of interactions and their perception of social presence in digitally facilitated learning environments; and 3) the influences of immersion on learners to experience a prosocial space vary across virtual reality, augmented reality, and video conferencing. VR environments offer the most pronounced sensation of social presence, while AR environments prove to be optimal for interacting in digitally facilitated learning environments. Out of these three conditions, VC environments were perceived the lowest for interaction, sensation of social presence, and the establishment of a communal atmosphere of collaboration in digitally mediated learning environments. These findings make valuable contributions to theory by providing insights into the influence of immersion and variability in mixed reality on learners’ perception of social space experiences. In this respect, this research expands the body of knowledge and research in both the information systems and education fields. Furthermore, this research offers valuable insights for educators to make informed decisions regarding the selection and adoption of augmented and virtual reality technologies, as well as devising digital strategies in higher education. It contributes to our understanding of effective implementation of mixed reality in this context. / Dissertation / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Text in English / With the growing trends in favour of online learning in higher education, further research is needed on the social experiences of students enrolled in online courses. The purpose of this qualitative study was to explore the ways in which social presence manifested itself amongst first-year undergraduate students who had studied in a fully asynchronous web-based course at Unisa in 2014. The Community of Inquiry framework, which posits that meaningful online learning experience results from interaction of cognitive presence, social presence, and teaching presence, guided this inquiry. Purposive sampling was utilised to select 18 participants who met the selection criteria. Through semi-structured, telephonic interviews, couched with the social constructivism stance, the participants‟ perceptions of social presence were thematically analysed. The findings revealed that first-year online undergraduate students manifested social presence through affective responses, interactive responses, group cohesion, interaction, instructor presence and internet access. Overall, social presence manifested itself through participation and interaction within the discussion forums. The findings specified further that a blended online learning approach can be crucial in meeting the learning needs of some students. Furthermore, the findings alluded to a lack of interaction and feedback from the online instructors. In addition, the findings revealed a limitation in terms of internet access, particularly for students in rural areas, which is of concern in an ODL milieu heading online. Implications of the study findings, study limitations and avenues for future research are discussed. / Psychology / M.A. (Psychology)

Robots and virtual agents grow rapidly in behavioural sophistication and complexity. They become better learners and teachers, cooperators and communicators, workers and companions. These artefacts – whose behaviours are not always readily understood by human intuition nor comprehensibly explained in terms of mechanism – will have to interact socially. Moving beyond artificial rational systems to artificial social systems means having to engage with fundamental questions about agenthood, sociality, intelligence, and the relationship between mind and body. It also means having to revise our theories about these things in the course of continuously assessing the social sufficiency of existing artificial social agents. The present thesis presents an empirical study investigating the social influence of physical versus virtual embodiment on people's decisions in the context of a bargaining task. The results indicate that agent embodiment did not affect the social influence of the agent or the extent to which it was perceived as a social actor. However, participants' perception of the agent as a social actor did influence their decisions. This suggests that experimental results from studies comparing different robot embodiments should not be over-generalised beyond the particular task domain in which the studied interactions took place.