This qualitative research study aims to investigate how eight members of the Society of Friends (also known as Quakers) experience a divine presence in their Meeting for Worship. The purpose is also to find out how their identity as Quakers has been created, and to see how they look at their Meeting of Worship when it comes to ritual as a concept. The method used in this study is individual, semi-structured interviews and observations of Meeting of Worship. The results show a relatively homogeneous group of individuals from a secular upbringing who as adults sought out a community where silence is appreciated and used to achieve an experience of a divine presence. Berger and Luckmann's theories of socialization have been applied to the results and the discussion reveals how the secondary socialization has been essential in the process of forming the individual into being a Quaker. There is however one exception, in the form of one participant who grew up in the Society of Friends. Catherine Bell’s ritual theory, that no ritual can be defined without its context, can be applied to the Quaker’s view of a ritual. The view Bell has on rituals can be used to understand the views shared by the participants in the study.

Recent developments in international relations have seen dramatic increases in the number and activities of human rights non-governmental organisations (NGOs). This has inspired research that seeks to explain processes of human rights socialisation, particularly in crisis zones. In this context, NGO advocacy is often welcomed as being inherently beneficial for adherence to human rights principles. Such a position, however, fails to account for the critiques offered by theorists who suggest that the wielding of any power to affect change can have negative as well as positive outcomes, and the critiques of realist international relations theorists who assert the dangers of unqualified promotion of normative concerns in the face of power interests. In this context, this thesis offers a critical evaluation of the contributions of NGO advocacy in human rights socialisation. Two models of human rights socialisation – the spiral and boomerang models – are utilised in examining human rights advocacy in West Papua, a province of Indonesia. The West Papuan case study indicates that detrimental outcomes can result from the failure of human rights advocates to account for political interests and state sovereignty in their strategies of human rights promotion. Human rights campaigns framed in terms of people’s rights to physical security and subsistence, instead of more political rights, such as the right to selfdetermination, are likely to be more positive for human rights adherence. This points to the desirability of a hierarchy of rights principles in human rights advocacy and suggests, for the socialisation models used, a need for clearer distinctions between the human rights principles prescribed for advocacy.

The EU, over time, has garnered international recognition and acclaim as a successful agent of democratisation in third countries. The transitions of Greece, Spain and Portugal in the 1980s coupled with the recent Eastern enlargements of the EU into erstwhile communist space attest to the success of the EU in fostering tangible democratisation. However, as the EU rapidly approaches its institutional capacity, questions remain as to its viability as an agent of democratisation in the post-enlargement setting where the EU can no longer offer full membership as an incentive for political and economic reform. This thesis attempts to examine the viability of the EU as a democratic facilitator in the post-enlargement setting, through examination of the European Neighbourhood Policy (ENP), a policy described by the EU as ‘everything but institutions’. Two mechanisms of normative transfer relative to the ENP were identified in the literature: conditionality, where the EU attaches incentives for successful political and economic reform, and socialisation, a newer notion whereby norms are transferred via interaction through generating close links with domestic actors. It was ascertained that in the context of the ENP, socialisation represented the dominant mechanism for normative change; conditionality was still utilised as a mechanism, however its scope had reduced greatly. To illuminate the phenomenon of EU democratic promotion, the case study of Armenia was chosen, a small but politically intriguing state in the EU’s Eastern Neighbourhood which had experienced (as is the case with the majority of post-Soviet states) stagnation and regression of the democratisation process since independence. Two facets of the EU’s democratisation strategy inherent in the ENP were chosen as empirical research areas: free and fair elections and interaction with domestic civil society organisations (CSOs). Free and fair elections offered evaluation of the conditionality aspects of the ENP through examining the 2008 Armenian presidential election. Interaction with domestic Armenian CSOs presented a rich phenomenon to examine the impact of socialisation in the ENP through utilising a case study examining four democratically minded NGOs. Ultimately, this thesis contends that through the ENP, the EU can no longer effectively wield conditionality as a viable mechanism of normative change and currently lacks the tools or a suitable environment to initialise normative transfers through socialisation. Consequently, it is argued that the EU has had little effect in facilitating democratisation in Armenia since the advent of the ENP.

Physiotherapy in Sweden has developed from a practical, hands-on, assistant job predominantly taught at college level to a university-based academic discipline emphasising evidence-based practice and research. Women are in majority although an increasing number of men have entered the profession. Women and men physiotherapists tend to undertake different career paths. The overall aim of the present thesis was to use a gender perspective to describe and analyse attitudes to the professional role, health care work and the development of the profession among actors engaged in physiotherapy education. A questionnaire was distributed in 1997 to all Swedish physiotherapy students in the second semester of the education (n=273). The same cohort was investigated in 1999 at the completion of the education. The response rate was 93 percent at both occasions. For an international comparison, the same questionnaire was distributed in 1997 and in 1999 to a group of Canadian physiotherapy students in their first and last semesters (n=60). Qualitative research interviews were conducted with 8 novices in physiotherapy and with 14 women educators in academia. Five focus group discussions with clinical supervisors were conducted (10 women and 5 men). Methods used were Grounded theory, factor analysis, logistic regression and path analysis. Feminist theories and Bourdieu's theory of culture constituted a theoretical framework Four ideal types were identified among the novices representing attitudes to the professional role. The Treater and The Supervisor were attitudes found among the women, whereas The Coach and The Entrepreneur were attitudes among the men. Type of health care facility was important for their positioning in the organisational hierarchy. Swedish students favour future employment in private practice. Sports medicine clinics and fitness centres are health care facilities highly endorsed, as is health promotion. Neither care of elderly nor hospital work are preferable fields of practice. Research is not favoured. Men students are more likely to have chosen the profession because of their interest in physical activity and sports. They are also more likely to prefer owning a private clinic and working with alternative approaches such as fitness training in sports medicine clinics. Women students are more likely to prefer an employment in private practice. The Canadian men students favour private practice whereas the women prefer the public sector of health care. The academic educators experience a gap between theory and practice which causes conflicting messages to students. Competing professions, emergent societal change and a conservative clinical practice constitute threats to the profession. The uniqueness of professional competency, theoretical development and new arenas such as home rehabilitation, consulting and research constitute a vision for future development of the profession. Masculinity is highly valued for status and power whereas femininity symbolises empathy and caring. The clinical supervisors update their theoretical knowledge base through supervision of students, but claim that students lack hands-on skills. Stress at work, unequal power relations in the hierarchy and restructuring of health care are factors that influence work satisfaction negatively. To conclude, gendered habitus, different symbolic capital and different attitudes towards health care work and development of the profession were found in the sub-fields of physiotherapy. / digitalisering@umu

Cette thèse appréhende la question de la socialisation ouvrière au travers du prisme des apprentissages professionnels. Elle cherche à rendre compte du processus de sociogenèse des collectifs de travail et des régimes d'appartenance en interrogeant les modalités d'acquisition de savoirs professionnels. La problématique vise plus spécifiquement à appréhender la relation entre la construction des savoirs expérientiels et la dynamique des affiliations au collectif de travail. Cette problématique s'appuie notamment sur l'analyse des phénomènes d'imitation et d'individuation. À cette fin, elle mobilise des données récoltées sur deux terrains : une grande entreprise d'aéronautique de la banlieue parisienne et des ateliers de construction métallique de la région liégeoise. Elle développe une analyse comparative de ces deux socialisations ouvrières du point de vue des usages de l'écrit professionnel, du processus de transmission et d'expérimentation, des modes de rationalisation du travail et de l'influence spécifique des cadres d'expériences.

Die vorliegende Studie untersucht die gesellschaftliche Rolle des gegenwärtigen Mathematikunterrichts an deutschen allgemeinbildenden Schulen aus einer soziologisch-kritischen Perspektive. In Zentrum des Interesses steht die durch den Mathematikunterricht erfahrene Sozialisation. Die Studie umfasst unter anderem eine Literaturdiskussion, die Ausarbeitung eines soziologischen Rahmens auf der Grundlage des Werks von Michel Foucault und zwei Teilstudien zur Soziologie der Logik und des Rechnens. Abschließend werden Dispositive des Mathematischen beschrieben, die darlegen, in welcher Art und mit welcher persönlichen und gesellschaftlichen Folgen der gegenwärtige Mathematikunterricht eine spezielle Geisteshaltung etabliert. / This study examines the social role of contemporary mathematics classes at German schools of general education from a sociological-critical perspective. At the centre of attention is the socialisation experienced by mathematics education. The study includes but is not limited to a discussion of literature, the development of a sociological frame on the basis of the work of Michel Foucault, and two sub-studies on the sociology of logic and calculation. Conclusively, I present dispositives of the mathematical, which show in which way and with which personal and social consequences contemporary mathematics education establish a special mentality.

Alors que plusieurs recherches québécoises font état d'un lien significatif entre la socialisation de genre et la dépression, cette étude vise à saisir la perception que se font les hommes du lien possible entre leur rapport aux normes masculines et une épreuve de détresse psychologique qu'ils ont vécue. Pour ce faire, une méthodologie qualitative basée sur le récit de soi s'inscrivant dans un schème compréhensif a été choisie. Sept participants recrutés par méthode de réseautage et « bouche à oreille » ont réalisé une entrevue semi-dirigée d'une durée variant entre 1h10 et 1h40. Les participants étaient âgés de 26 à 46 ans et détenaient tous un niveau de scolarisation plus ou moins élevé. Au terme de ces entrevues, un portrait du récit de chacun des participants ainsi qu'une analyse transversale effectuée à l'aide du logiciel d'analyse de données MAXQDA ont contribué à présenter les résultats obtenus. Ainsi, les résultats de cette étude révèlent un lien significatif, mais non dominant entre la socialisation de genre et la détresse vécue par les participants. Malgré le fait que les participants ne s'identifiaient pas ou très peu au modèle de la masculinité traditionnel, tous ont manifesté leur détresse de manière masculine à un moment ou à un autre. Effectivement, plusieurs ont vécu cette épreuve avec une grande solitude, ont porté le masque leur permettant de camoufler la détresse, ont ressenti beaucoup de colère et d'agressivité, ont demandé de l'aide très tardivement, etc. Alors que certains participants semblaient réticents à relier le concept de la socialisation de genre à celui de la détresse, d'autres ont affirmé que certains apprentissages connexes à la masculinité pouvaient leur être nuisibles. Par ailleurs, il a été possible de soulever dans le récit des participants la présence des normes masculines. Ainsi, bien que le modèle traditionnel de la masculinité soit aujourd'hui remis en question, il semble que celui-ci continue de se faire sentir chez les hommes, et ce, bien malgré eux. En fait, les résultats de cette étude ont davantage révélé la présence des pressions rattachées aux nouvelles règles de l'individualité contemporaine, soit la performance, l'autonomie, la responsabilité individuelle et l'initiative comme élément explicatif de leur souffrance. Effectivement, au-delà du genre, plusieurs participants ont nommé avoir dû négocier ces pressions sociales afin de s'extirper de leur détresse. Les résultats de cette étude remplissent l'objectif exploratoire, encouragent les professionnels à se conscientiser davantage au fait que les hommes vivent parfois différemment la détresse et tendent la voie à d'autres études qui permettraient de pousser plus loin la réflexion sur le genre, la détresse et l'épreuve liée à l'individualité contemporaine. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Socialisation de genre, détresse psychologique, masculinité, individualité contemporaine, pressions normatives

The English Public Boarding School is considered from a sociological perspective, and more particularly in the context of research in the field of complex organizations, as a residential organization. Concepts are used which have been developed in studies of other residential organizations such as military units, hospitals and prisons. The account is of an exploratory, descriptive case study of 'the research school', using a variant on the method of participant observation as the principal technique of data collection supplemented with data collected during visits to certain other public schools and an examination of published and unpublished documents by staff and past pupils. The size of these schools and their residential nature, which involves them in the custody of their pupils, give rise to certain specific organizational problems to which similar solutions have been devised by most of the schools. Certain aspects of the social process in the education provided by the schools are indicated in the examination of their admission procedures, processes of socialization on entry and the concomitants of organizational membership, of the agents and means of social control, together with a discussion both of the boys' perception of relative gratifications and deprivations with respect to various reference groups both within and without the school system and of the boys' different modes of adaptation to life in the socio-cultural context of the school. These schools belong to that category of complex organization which in addition to working through and with people work on them. The role of the school in socializing the boy and regulating his behaviour while a member of the school is emphasized, as education in the public boarding school is as much the attempt to socialize its pupils as to enable them to pass formal examinations or otherwise achieve academic ends, and it is with this former aspect of the schools that this account is primarily concerned. The schools' combined custodial and educational commitments make the maintenance of social order within them of fundamental significance. By anticipatory socialization in the home and at 'preparatory' school, and by their recruitment selection and admission procedures, by a formal system of control exercised partly through the prefect system, by the privilege system and certain ritualistic activities and ritualistic symbolization, the staff combine a high degree of organizational control with high scope and pervasiveness. During term a boy is engaged almost exclusively in activities involving other members of his school and organizational status embraces his life to an extent which is approached by few other types of organization in English society. Aspects of life at these schools are described which involve the pupils experiencing, rather than a sense of relative gratification, one of relative deprivation. The extent to which a particular boy experiences this is discussed in terms of disparities between his presenting culture on entry and the way of life associated with organizational membership, and in terms of his expectations and of the mode of adaptation and constellations of reference groups he has adopted at the time. The boys' responses to life in the socio-cultural context of the public boarding school are presented within the framework of a revised form of Merton's Typology of Individual Adaptation, and discussed in relation to the availability of the various modes of adaptation and to some of the determinants of their adoption by particular boys at certain stages of their school careers.

Teisti asmenys įvardijami kaip socialiai pažeidžiami, todėl išėjęs į laisvę tampa visuomenės problema: neturi darbo, būsto, jų išsilavinimas menkas, o artimieji dažnai nutraukia ryšius su buvusiais kaliniais. Neturintys išsilavinimo ar žemo išsilavinimo lygio asmenys patiria daugiau sunkumų integruojantis į darbo rinką, o dalyvavimas visuomeniniame gyvenime būna apribotas. Dažnai, nesulaukę tinkamos pagalbos, marginalinei grupei priskiriami asmenys, įvykdo naują nusikaltimą, sugrįžta į kalėjimą ir taip uždaras ratas sukasi toliau. Labai svarbu Pataisos įstaigose nuteistiesiems įgyti pradinį, pagrindinį ir profesinį išsilavinimą, išsaugoti turimus darbo įgūdžius, įgyti naujų, paklausių darbo rinkoje profesijų, ugdyti motyvaciją keistis. Nuteistųjų edukacinė veikla ir įvairaus pobūdžio užsiėmimai PI yra labai svarbus faktorius, dažnai lemiantis sėkmingą integracijos į visuomenę procesą. / Education of convicts in correctional institutions should become a relevant issue to all society because a negative attitude towards ex-convicts, which has been prevailing for many years, often turns against the society itself. The ex-convict becomes a problem of the society due to subjective and objective reasons, i.e. he/she is unemployed, does not have a dwelling place, he/she has poor education and rather often the relatives of the ex-convict terminate their relations with him/her. Moreover, the psychological state of the ex-prisoner is unstable due to which the situation becomes even more complicated.

This study focuses upon the extent that teaching about democracy affects pupil comprehension and opinions about democracy. Its point of departure is the question, “to what extent is school an agent of democratic socialization?” The overall aim of this study is to contribute to understanding the democratic socialization process and especially to understand the role that school can play in that process.   The study is comprised of a survey about democratic values, democratic institutions and democratic authorities completed by 318 upper secondary pupils upon two occasions. The first was just prior to the start of the course, “Samhällskunskap A” and the second was at the end of that course. The survey also included a number of background questions related to each individual participant; 28 pupils in one of the schools who had not yet studied “Samhällskunskap A” were used as a control group. Twelve teachers involved in actual teaching at that time were interviewed regarding their attitudes toward the official documents about democratic socialization and whether or not they saw the goals as articulated in those documents as possible to achieve.   Based upon theories about democratic socialization and socialization agents, a number of conditions and problems were formulated and operationalized in order to analyse the outcome of the study. Three main concepts were used as analytical tools: democratic orientations, democratic socialization and socialization agent.   The results do not support the assumption that school can be seen as a general democratic socialization agent through teaching about politics and democracy. But certain situations and aspects of democratic orientations demonstrate that the school has a tendency to affect socialization; therefore school is seen as a specific democratic socialization agent. The main conclusion of this study is that teaching about politics and democracy is expected to have limited influence on pupils in upper secondary school. Also important is the finding that the pupil’s average change on the aggregate level is low, but on individual level, many pupils made significant changes regarding their democratic orientations during the course. The results support a view that the process of democratic socialization is a complex process and is difficult to predict.