Recent scholarship on Hegel has employed the Wittgensteinian concept of a "form of life" in order to explain how sociality shapes and determines the reflective practices of self-conscious individuals. However, few of these scholars have considered how the non-reflective aspects of inhabiting a form of life- especially the abilities to form habits and to have feelings- contribute to the reflective aspects. In this thesis I argue that this oversight leads to serious exegetical and philosophical problems for making sense of Hegel's theory of ethical life. Not only does Hegel regard habit and feeling as playing a necessary role in the justification of our reflective practices, but he is right to do so, since, were he not to consider these factors, he could not account for how any of our moral claims could be justified.

Historically during domestication of animals, tameness towards humans was likely the most desired trait and therefore bred on. The red junglefowl (Gallus gallus) is the wild progenitor of all domestic chicken breeds and earlier studies present clear morphological, physiological and behavioural differences between domesticated breeds and the non-domesticated red junglefowl. These changes may be the result of altered gene expression - pleiotropy or linked genes. The aim of this thesis was to evaluate (1) effects of tameness selection on social behaviour towards conspecifics and (2) social behaviour differences between the sexes. Two generations of red junglefowl, P0 and its offspring F1, were studied. Both generations were divided into three selection lines (tame, intermediate or fearful), depending on their results in a fear of humans test.  A novel type of social reinstatement test was set up, containing a non-social area without stimulus, and a social area containing a mirror serving as stimulus animals. The social and aggressive behaviours performed towards the mirror were recorded, so was the time spent in the social versus non-social part. An undisturbed behaviour test was performed, as well as a standardized social reinstatement test. The P0-females performed significantly more social behaviour (p=0.008) at 26 weeks than males in the mirror test, and females also displayed significantly more social (p=0.04) and agonistic behaviour (p<0.001) than males in the undisturbed behaviour test. The social reinstatement test displayed a significant effect between the selection lines with regards to sociality. This suggests that there are immediate selection responses in early domestication.

Sozialität ist vorteilhaft für Individuen. Sozialbeziehungen zwischen Individuen können als langfristige Investitionen betrachtet werden, die letztlich individuelle Fitness beeinflussen. Die Analyse der Kosten und Nutzen von Sozialbeziehungen kann daher dazu dienen, herauszufinden wie Individuen mit den Kosten (Wettbewerb) und Vorteilen (Kooperation) vom Gruppenleben umgehen. Theoretische Modelle, die zur Erklärung der existierenden Diversität von Sozialstrukturen im Tierreich dienen, basieren auf der Analyse ökologischer, genetischer, ontogenetischer, phylogenetischer und anderer sozialer Faktoren. In Säugetieren entwickeln Weibchen häufig intensive soziale Bindungen. Diese Bindungen werden häufig stark von Dominanz- und Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen geprägt, was wiederum Konsequenzen hat für Kooperation im Allgemeinen. Es ist jedoch noch größtenteils unklar, wie Unterschiede in der Stärke und Qualität von solchen sozialen Bindungen auftreten, insbesondere in Bezug auf den Typ der Gesellschaft in der sie auftreten, beispielsweise ob eine Gesellschaft eher despotisch oder egalitär organisiert ist. Obwohl alle Makakenarten (Gattung Macaca) eine gemeinsame Art von sozialer Organisation teilen (Mehrmännchen/Mehrweibchen Gruppen, Philopatrie der Weibchen), treten gleichzeitig markante Unterschiede im Sozialverhalten zwischen den einzelnen Arten auf. Die Unterschiede wurden anhand verschiedener Faktoren erklärt, die von Ökologie bis hin zu Phylogenie reichen, was wiederum zur Klassifizierung der Arten in verschiedene Kategorien führte. Ein Problem dabei ist, jedoch, dass bisher nur einige wenige Makakenarten sehr intensiv erforscht wurden, während viele andere Arten bisher stark vernachlässigt wurden. Diese Unausgeglichenheit unterhöhlt unser Verständnis der Diversität der verschiedenen Sozialsysteme. Das übergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, durch die Erforschung einer der bisher weniger bekannten Arten, dem Schopfmakaken M. nigra, unser Wissen und Verständnis über die Verhaltensdiversität innerhalb der Makaken zu erweitern. Das erste untergeordnete Ziel dieser Arbeit ist es, den Grad sozialer Toleranz zwischen Weibchen zu quantifizieren (Studie 1). Danach erläutere ich die Struktur und Funktion von Sozialbeziehungen zwischen Weibchen. Ich beschreibe die Interaktionen die direkt nach Konflikten stattfinden (Studie 2), und untersuche den Einfluss von Dominanz- und Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen auf Sozialverhalten (Studie 3). Insgesamt können die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit dazu beitragen, das Zusammenspiel verschiedener Faktoren besser zu verstehen, insbesondere durch den Vergleich der in Schopfmakaken gefundenen Muster mit denen anderer Arten. Darauf aufbauend wird ein theoretischer Rahmen vorgeschlagen, der die Evolution unterschiedlicher Sozialstrukturen im Tierreich zu vereinen sucht. In der ersten Studie quantifiziere ich eine umfangreiche Reihe von Verhaltensparametern, die dazu geeignet sind den sozialen Stil einer Art zu bestimmen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Studie bestätigen einen toleranten sozialen Stil weiblicher Schopfmakaken, der sich durch Konflikte mit niedriger Intensität, häufiger bidirektionalität, und versöhnung ausdrückt. Asymmetrie in Dominanzbeziehungen ist moderat, was unter anderem durch den bidirektionalen und affiliativen Gebrauch der bared-teeth Geste ausgedrückt wird. Weiterhin tolerieren Weibchen gegenseitige räumliche Nähe. Diese Muster stimmen mit denen anderer toleranter Makakenarten überein und liegen außerhalb der für despotische Arten beschriebenen Variation. In der zweiten Studie untersuche ich die Determinanten und Funktionen von Interaktionen die nach Konflikten stattfinden. Die Kosten von Aggression werden durch Verhaltensindikatoren für Stress gemessen. Weiterhin untersuche ich, ob Charakteristika von Konflikten (z.B. Intensität, Entschiedenheit, Kontext) und der beteiligten Paare (Stärke der sozialen Bande, Häufigkeit von Unterstützung in Konflikten), das Auftreten von Interaktionen nach einem Konflikt beeinflussen. Dabei teste ich vier mögliche Funktionen von nach-Konflikt-Interaktionen. Wenig spricht dafür, dass Aggression Kosten beinhaltet, gemessen durch Verhaltensindikatoren für Stress. Es scheint deshalb unwahrscheinlich, dass Interaktionen nach einem Konflikt dazu dienen solchen Stress zu reduzieren. Ebenso unwahrscheinlich scheint es, dass solche Interaktionen dazu dienen die Beziehung zwischen den Tieren zu „reparieren“. Im Gegensatz dazu unterstützen die Muster der Initiationen und Richtungen der nach-Konflikt Interaktionen die Hypothese, dass Versöhnung ein Signal für freundliche Intention ist, und dass Interaktionen mit Dritten dem Schutz vor erneuter Aggression dienen. Auch diese Ergebnisse weisen auf den toleranten sozialen Stil von Schopfmakaken hin und kontrastieren mit den Ergebnissen von Studien anderer Makaken- und Tierarten. Die abschließende Studie beschreibt den Einfluss von Dominanz und Verwandtschaft auf Sozialbeziehungen. Dafür untersuche ich Verbindungen zwischen Dominanz, Verwandtschaft, Alter, sozialen Bindungen, Unterstützung in Konflikten, und soziale Toleranz (Versöhnung und Nahrungsaufnahme in der Nähe anderer Individuen). Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass hochrangige Weibchen als soziale Partner nicht attraktiver sind als niederrangige Weibchen, und dass Dominanzbeziehungen unabhängig vom Verwandtschaftsgrad sind. Weiterhin kann ich zeigen, dass die stärksten sozialen Bindungen zwischen verwandten Weibchen auftreten, die einen ähnlichen Rang haben und gleichaltrig sind. Im Gegensatz dazu, tritt Unterstützung in Konflikten am häufigsten zwischen Tieren gleichen Ranges und Alters auf, unabhängig vom Verwandtschaftsgrad und der Stärke der sozialen Bindung. Des weiteren konnte keine Beziehung zwischen den getesteten Parametern und sozialer Toleranz gefunden werden. Diese differenzierten Effekte von Beziehungs-Charakteristika unterstreichen die Komplexität des sozialen Lebens in Schopfmakaken. In solch toleranten Gesellschaften formen Weibchen weitreichende und diversifizierte Netzwerke. Durch die Kombination von Verhaltens- und genetischen Daten, stellt diese Arbeit die erste umfassende Studie über Sozialverhalten unter natürlichen Bedingungen dar, an einer Art über die bisher relativ wenig bekannt ist. Die erste Studie unterstützt die Idee, dass soziale Stile als „Cluster“ von sozialen Verhaltensweisen betrachtet werden können. Diese Cluster variieren um einen Modalwert und ähneln sich innerhalb von Arten mehr als zwischen Arten und Gruppen von Arten. Damit können sie auch als coping Strategien oder Verhaltenssyndrome betrachtet werden. Weiterhin konnte der geringe Einfluss von Dominanz- und Verwandtschaftsbeziehungen auf die Stärke von sozialen Bindungen nachgewiesen werden, sowie die Abwesenheit eines Effektes der Stärke von sozialen Bindungen auf Koalitionen, Versöhnung, und Nahrungsaufnahme in der Nähe anderer Individuen. Diese Ergebnisse werfen die Frage auf, welchen adaptiven Wert starke soziale Bindungen haben, angesichts ihrer Diversität in Arten in denen soziale Netzwerke gebildet werden. Es kann daher angenommen werden, dass solche Unterschiede zwischen toleranten und despotischen Strategien im evolutionären Kontext bedeutungsvoll waren. Die vorherrschenden Theorien sozialer Evolution können einen großen Teil der auftretenden Variation im Sozialverhalten nicht ausreichend erklären. Mit dieser Arbeit schlage ich deshalb vor, soziale Stile von Makaken besser als coping Strategien oder Verhaltenssyndrome zu betrachten, die sich evolutiv entwickelten, um letztlich die Probleme zu lösen, die mit dem Leben in sozialen Gruppen einhergehen. Im Rahmen von Verhaltenssyndromen betrachtet können nicht nur verschiedene Verhaltensstrategien in verschiedenen Kontexten und zwischen verschiedenen Individuen erklärt werden, sondern diese erlauben ebenfalls die Integration von Ansätzen um gleichzeitig proximate Mechanismen, ultimate Funktionen, und Ontogenie von Verhalten zu untersuchen. Die Ergebnisse dieser Arbeit sollten in folgenden Studien durch Quantifizierung weiterer ökologischer (bspw. Wettbewerb um Zugang zur Nahrung) und sozialer Einflussfaktoren (bspw. Männchen) ergänzt werden. Insgesamt weicht das Sozialverhalten von Schopfmakaken, wie ich in dieser Arbeit beschreibe, substantiell von dem ab, was normalerweise als typisch für cercopithecine Primaten angesehen wird. Dies unterstreicht letztlich die Wichtigkeit, sowohl externe (Umwelt), als auch interne Komponenten (Sozialsystem) zu betrachten, um die Diversität von Tiergesellschaften zu erklären. / La vie sociale est extrêmement bénéfique pour les individus. Les relations sociales entre individus, compétitives et coopératives, sont considérées comme des investissements à long-terme influençant leur valeur adaptative. L’analyse des coûts (compétition) et bénéfices (coopération) de la vie sociale à ce niveau permets donc de determiner les stratégies comportementales des individus, qui sont très diverses. Pour expliquer cette diversité dans les structures sociales animales, les modèles d’évolution sociale prennent en compte l’influence de facteurs écologiques, génétiques, sociaux, développementaux et l’histoire phylogénétique des espèces. Chez les mammifères sociaux, les femelles, étant philopatriques, forment des liens sociaux forts. Ces liens peuvent être influencés par les relations de dominance et le degré de parenté. La variation dans la force et la diversité des relations sociales a d’importantes implications pour la coopération entre femelles. Cependant, les facteurs déterminant cette variation restent ambigus, surtout en relation avec le type de société dans laquelle les femelles vivent, par exemple despotique ou égalitaire. Les macaques (genre Macaca) partagent la même organisation sociale (groupes multi-males multi-femelles où les femelles sont philopatriques), mais les relations sociales des différentes espèces varient largement. Ces différences sont expliquées par différent facteurs, de l’écologie à la covariation des caractères, et ont généré plusieurs classifications des structures sociales. Un problème majeur est le manque de connaissance de certaines espèces au détriment d’autres qui empêche une compréhension exhaustive de la diversité sociale des macaques. L’objectif principal de ma thèse est donc d’approfondir la connaissance de la diversité sociale des macaques par l’étude détaillée d’une des espèces les moins connues, les macaques à crête de Sulawesi, M. nigra, dans son milieu naturel. Ma 1ère étude consiste à évaluer le style social des femelles. J’examine ensuite de manière approfondie la structure et la fonction des relations sociales par l’étude des interactions conciliatoires (2ème étude) et de l’influence de la dominance et de la parenté sur les interactions sociales (3ème étude). Finalement, je propose une réflexion sur l’interaction des facteurs diverses dans une perspective comparative et une idée de modèle permettant une prise en compte globale de ces facteurs dans l’évolution de la diversité sociale. Dans la première étude, j’évalue un ensemble de comportements sociaux dont la variation est liée au degré de tolérance d’une espèce. Je confirme que les femelles macaque à crête ont un style social tolérant avec des conflits de faible intensité, souvent bidirectionnels et réconciliés. L’asymétrie de dominance est modérée et associée à une mimique faciale positive et également bidirectionnelle. De plus, les femelles ont une grande tolérance des autres à proximité. Ces observations concordent avec ce qui a été observé chez les autres macaques tolérants et contrastent avec les macaques plus despotiques. Dans la deuxième étude, j’examine les facteurs déterminants et la fonction des interactions post-agression. J’analyse les conséquences de l’agression sur l’anxiété des femelles. J’étudie ensuite l’influence des caractéristiques des conflits (intensité, direction ou contexte) et de celles des dyades impliquées sur l’occurrence des interactions post-agression afin de déterminer leur fonction. Les agressions ne semblent pas perçues comme anxiogènes. En conséquence, les interactions post-agression ne semblent pas fonctionner pour réduire l’anxiété perçue des opposants. Je n’ai pu trouver qu’un support partiel à la théorie selon laquelle les femelles utilisent les interactions post-agression pour “raccommoder” leurs relations sociales. L’initiation et la direction des interactions post-agression révèlent plutôt que la réconciliation pourrait fonctionner comme un signal d’intention pacifique et que les agressions secondaires pourraient fonctionner pour réaffirmer le rang hiérarchique des opposants initiaux. Ces observations, très distinctes de ce qui est généralement observé chez les autres macaques et animaux sociaux, sont à mettre en relation avec le style social tolérant de cette espèce. Finalement, la troisième étude a pour objectif de déterminer l’influence des relations de dominance et de la parenté sur les interactions sociales. J’analyse les liens entre la dominance, la parenté, l’âge, les liens sociaux, les coalitions, le niveau de tolérance sociale (réconciliation et proximité autour de ressources alimentaires). Je ne trouve pas de lien entre les différences de rang hiérarchique et le degré de parenté. Je mets en évidence que les femelles appartenant à la même classe d’âge ainsi que les femelles à la fois proches en rang de dominance et apparentées ont les liens sociaux les plus forts. Les coalitions sont formées entre femelles appartenant à des classes d’âge différentes ou proches en dominance, mais pas entre apparentées ou entre femelles avec des liens forts. De plus, le degré de tolérance n’est influencé par aucune des variables analysées. Les effets différents des variables analysées sur plusieurs des plus importants paramètres sociaux censés influencer la valeur adaptative des femelles met en évidence la complexité des relations sociales dans les sociétés tolérantes, qui forment des réseaux sociaux diverses et variés. En combinant des variables comportementales et génétiques, ma thèse constitue l’étude la plus exhaustive du comportement social des femelles d’une espèce de macaque peu connue en milieu naturel. Elle apporte de nouvelles perspectives empiriques essentielles pour l’étude de la variation sociale. En confirmant le style social tolérant des femelles macaque à crête, la première étude étaye la thèse selon laquelle les styles sociaux sont des associations constantes de comportements, analogues aux syndromes comportementaux. Je démontre aussi l’influence limitée de la dominance ou de la parenté sur les relations sociales des femelles. Le degré de parenté ainsi que la force des liens sociaux, déterminants majeurs de la coopération, n’expliquent pas la fréquence des coalitions, ou le degré de tolérance sociale. Ces résultats questionnent l’importance de la force des liens sociaux par rapport à sa diversité. Ils indiquent aussi que les différences entre stratégies sociales sont significatives au niveau évolutif. Les théories actuelles sur l’évolution sociale ne sont pas entièrement satisfaisantes parce qu’une grande part de la variation observée dans les comportements sociaux restent inexpliquée. Je propose de considérer les styles sociaux comme des syndromes comportementaux, ayant évolués différemment pour résoudre le même problème: comment tirer tous les bénéfices de vivre en groupe. Finalement, le cadre théorique des syndromes comportementaux permet de prendre en compte de nombreux facteurs à la fois et de faire le lien entre eux afin d’expliquer globalement la diversité sociale. Mes résultats restent à mettre en relation de manière plus approfondie avec d’autres facteurs sociaux (comme le comportement des males) et écologiques (comme la compétition alimentaire). Néanmoins, le portrait des comportements sociaux des femelles macaque à crête tracé dans cette thèse diffère substantiellement du modèle traditionnel des primates cercopithecines. Cela démontre l’importance d’intégrer au sein d’un seul modèle d’évolution sociale tous les composants (l’environnement, l’organisme et le système social) pour mieux comprendre la diversité des sociétés animales.

The contagious nature of the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) jump-yip display may provide information to signalers and receivers regarding the vigilance of neighbours. Videotaping jump-yip bouts and the behaviour of both bout initiators and respondents within those bouts provided evidence that: 1) individuals became vigilant immediately following jump-yip production, but exhibited minimal changes in their immediate post-jump-yip behaviour with changes in the characteristics of the preceding bout, 2) bout initiators spent more time actively foraging and exhibited vigilance behaviours less frequently with greater levels of response in the preceding jump-yip bout, 3) respondents spent more time actively foraging and less time vigilant following bouts with greater response. These results suggest that black-tailed prairie dogs base behavioural decisions at least in part on the characteristics of their jump-yip bouts and thus the jump yip display may provide information about the vigilance of group members.

In this master’s final paper are formulated the problems of very rapidly changeable social processes and created the country communities influence to the ability of community members to adapt for the new conditions; It analyzed and systematized the different Lithuania’s and foreign author’s theoretical and practical research into the country community and social tension. The paper presents a detailed analysis of legal acts of Lithuania which are forming the social policy of the country. The main purpose of this research is an analysis of country communities’ influence to the social tension through the peculiarity of building up Lithuania’s country communities now. In order to reach this objective it was used the quantitative research, closed type questionnaire. There were found-out the main, social tensions, taking part in the country and, also, the influence of country’s community reducing these tensions. Moreover the author’s formulated hypothesis was proved that activity of recently launched organizations in the country is pointed to concentrate communities’ population to reduce theirs tensions. However nowadays country’s communities do not have significant influence to the process of solving population’s social problems. The results and conclusions of this research present the fact that it is essential to enhance the proceeding of newly launched country’s communities in order to increase the life quality of all communities and to reduce their social tenses.

Since the decoding of the human genome project concluded in 2003, rapid technological advances in the area of human genetics including genetic testing and bio banking have accelerated. Public discussion of genetic testing and biobanking are the focus of this thesis. Genetic profiling and predictive tests aim to establish the causal conditions for disorders such as Fragile X, cystic fibrosis and Huntington's disease. Biobanking involves the storage of genetic material for genetic research and can also include genealogical research. The complex and varied relationships that Maori (indigenous peoples of New Zealand) in different social locations have with western science (and human genetics in particular) is at the heart of this thesis. The thesis explores the responses of three differently located Maori social groups to the challenges posed by genetic testing and biobanking. Focus/contact group discussion with Maori members of the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints, a group of rongoa or traditional Maori health practitioners, and a group of Maori lawyers illustrate both diversity in the ways in which Maori respond to the issues posed by human genetics, and connections among them as they draw on Maori ontologies and epistemologies. In the analyses of these discussions which constitute the core of this thesis, Maori can be seen juggling alternative frames of reference and negotiating between knowledge systems. The thesis does not purport to provide an overview of Maori responses to genetic testing. Instead it uses discussion among three groups of research participants to illustrate the relevance of temporal and relational knowledge in local situations. A range of social science and Te Ao Maori conceptual tools are used to analyse conversations among research participants. These tools include discussion of power/knowledge and governmentality, actor network theory, sociological discussions of agency as well as concepts of whakapapa, kaitiaki, mauri, and mana motuhake. My goal is to illustrate both connection and heterogeneity in Maori responses to the challenges posed by genetic testing and bio banking.

The contagious nature of the black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) jump-yip display may provide information to signalers and receivers regarding the vigilance of neighbours. Videotaping jump-yip bouts and the behaviour of both bout initiators and respondents within those bouts provided evidence that: 1) individuals became vigilant immediately following jump-yip production, but exhibited minimal changes in their immediate post-jump-yip behaviour with changes in the characteristics of the preceding bout, 2) bout initiators spent more time actively foraging and exhibited vigilance behaviours less frequently with greater levels of response in the preceding jump-yip bout, 3) respondents spent more time actively foraging and less time vigilant following bouts with greater response. These results suggest that black-tailed prairie dogs base behavioural decisions at least in part on the characteristics of their jump-yip bouts and thus the jump yip display may provide information about the vigilance of group members.

163f. / Submitted by Oliveira Santos Dilzaná (dilznana@yahoo.com.br) on 2013-08-05T19:07:22Z No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza, N. A Herança do Mundo.pdf: 8361493 bytes, checksum: 48e0522ad0dea579e806c814d0c85bff (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Ana Portela(anapoli@ufba.br) on 2013-08-14T15:06:46Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza, N. A Herança do Mundo.pdf: 8361493 bytes, checksum: 48e0522ad0dea579e806c814d0c85bff (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2013-08-14T15:06:46Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Souza, N. A Herança do Mundo.pdf: 8361493 bytes, checksum: 48e0522ad0dea579e806c814d0c85bff (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011 / FAPESB / Este texto é resultado de uma investigação acerca das “conectividades” (relatedness) locais que incentivam a manutenção duradoura do estado de socialidade entre os índios Xokó, pequeno povo situado na Ilha de São Pedro, Baixo Rio São Francisco, estado de Sergipe. Para tanto, privilegiou-se, neste trabalho, um recorte específico de informantes, a saber, aqueles vistos como “jovens Xokó” diante da história local de longa duração – “longue durée". O intuito, com isso, foi analisar e compreender como os jovens contemporâneos discursam sobre eles mesmos, suas aspirações diante do mundo vivido e sua memória herdada do lugar em que vivem. E o resultado disso foi verificado no modo como eles discursam sobre algumas de suas próprias práticas cotidianas. Aquelas coletadas aqui apontam para as maneiras de agenciar, no dia a dia, formas de conectividades positivas na rede local de parentes, a fim de manter a terra onde vivem em permanente processo de territorialização. E um dos meios para conseguirem isso, segundo a análise que apresento, é aquele que busca sustentar a socialidade do grupo na Ilha de São Pedro tanto quanto for possível. This text is the result of an investigation about the local "connectivities" (relatedness) that encourage the maintenance of lasting state of sociality among the Xokó Indians, a small indigenous people living on the island of São Pedro, located in the lower San Francisco river and the state of Sergipe. To this end, the study specifically focuses upon one group of informants, namely, those seen as "Xokó youth", in the context of an analysis of local history seen in the long-term - "longue durée". The purpose, with this, was to analyze and understand how contemporary youth talk about themselves and their aspirations, discourse that is framed within their lived world and in the face of the memory they have inherited of the place where they live. Discourse on some of their own daily practices is revealing. Those collected here point to the day-to-day ways of lending agency to forms of positive connectivities in the local network of kin, in order to keep the land they live in a permanent process of territorialization. And one way to achieve this, according to the present analysis, is that which seeks ardently to sustain the sociality of the group on São Pedro Island as much as possible. / Salvador

Social behavior and habitat selection of river otters (Lontra canadensis) are highly variable among populations and there is limited information on how space use of this mustelid changes in human-modified environments. Understanding the spatial ecology of river otters is important for efforts focused on habitat management and preventing human-wildlife conflicts. My objectives were to quantify: (1) home ranges and core areas, (2) second- and third-order habitat selection, and (3) relationships between home-range size and intensity of human development for river otters in southern Illinois. VHF transmitters were used to track river otters during 2014-2016. Home-range and core-area sizes then were compared between males (n = 8) and females (n = 10), as was home-range overlap. I also compared the frequency individuals were located <25 m from a conspecific between sexes. Habitat selection at the second and third orders was analyzed with an eigen-analysis of selection ratios. Male river otters had larger home ranges and core areas than females. Home ranges of males overlapped frequently; lack of core-area overlap among females suggested they may be territorial. Males also were located <25 m from a conspecific more frequently than females (P = 0.023), and male-male dyads shared space more than male-female and female-female dyads (P = 0.002). Herbaceous and wooded wetlands were most strongly selected for at both second- and third-order scales, but streams and ponds also were selected. Regarding terrestrial cover types, river otters selected land with vegetative cover over areas with impervious surface (e.g., parking lots and shopping centers). Forests were selected over crop fields at the third-order, but not second-order, scale. Use of urbanized land was uncommon for river otters, and there was a positive relationship (P = 0.004) between home-range size and the percentage of home range within developed open space (e.g., roads and residential lawns). The habitat selection and sociality of river otters in southern Illinois varied among individuals, as it does among river otter populations throughout North America. By recording sex differences in social behavior and selection of aquatic and upland habitat, my study provides wildlife biologists with a better understanding of river otter space use throughout a rural-urban gradient.

Métodos filogenéticos comparativos utilizam informações sobre as relações de ancestralidade entre as espécies para testar hipóteses evolutivas. Neste contexto, a Reconstrução de Caracteres Ancestrais (RCA) pode nos esclarecer muito a respeito dos organismos já extintos. A família Canidae apresenta variada gama de comportamentos, distribuída por quase todo o planeta. Sua rica história fóssil demonstra processos que nos dão pistas sobre a evolução e diversificação destes comportamentos ao longo de 46 Ma. Entender a importância de fatores bióticos e abióticos na evolução de carnívoros tem sido um dos grandes desafios em estudos macroevolutivos nos últimos anos. Aqui foram abordados aspectos evolutivos de Canidae com o intuito de demonstrar o papel de fatores ambientais e comportamentais, além de interações, na diversificação do grupo. Para isso, construiu-se a filogenia para todas as espécies vivas de canídeos e uma espécie recentemente extinta. No total, 37 espécies foram incluídas na árvore filogenética. Foram obtidos 23 marcadores moleculares usados na construção da filogenia. Utilizou-se também 68 caracteres morfológicos. A construção da filogenia foi feita utilizando inferência Bayesiana. O modelo evolutivo escolhido nessa etapa foi GTR + G + I. Também foi utilizado o algoritmo de Monte Carlo Markov Chain (MCMC) para obter a distribuição a posteriori, com 50 x 106 iterações. A datação da árvore filogenética foi feita através do método de Penalized Likelihood, onde foram utilizados 11 registros fósseis de nós conhecidos da filogenia. Após a filogenia feita, obteve-se os dados comportamentais para realização da RCA a respeito dos quatro atributos avaliados. As quatro reconstruções foram criadas com inferência em 1000 árvores cada. Todas análises de RCA foram realizadas com o método de parcimônia. Com o intuito de entender de que maneira os atributos se correlacionam ao longo da filogenia, foi calculada a correlação de Pagel além de Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares (PGLS). A topologia obtida aqui foi diferente das demais árvores filogenéticas já criadas para Canidae. Além disso, a calibração temporal indica que o split entre Canini e Vulpini se deu há 12.6 Ma, diferente do que é apontado na literatura. A respeito das reconstruções, as linhagens ancestrais dos lobos e das raposas desenvolveram o hábito de viver em áreas abertas. Já os canídeos sulamericanos desenvolveram preferência por áreas florestais. Em relação à dieta, o ancestral de Caninae, assim como os ancestrais diretos das tribos Canini e Vulpini, apresentavam comportamento alimentar hipocarnívoro. O ancestral de todos os canídeos existentes hoje apresentou baixa organização social, enquanto que os lobos desenvolveram alto comportamento social, coincidindo com o surgimento do hábito hipercarnívoro. A respeito do tamanho corporal, o nó ancestral a todos os canídeos possuía tamanho médio, e as duas tribos que surgiram a partir desta linhagem divergiram seus tamanhos. O teste de Pagel demonstrou que há correlação entre dieta e socialidade, mostrando que a alimentação levou a modificações no comportamento Social. Os PGLSs mostram que três tipos de modelos evolutivos explicam as mudanças nos atributos ao longo do tempo. As mudanças no uso de habitat dos canídeos acompanharam as mudanças climáticas no planeta ao longo dos últimos 13 Ma. Já a alimentação meso e hipocarnívora dos sulamericanos se deve ao cenário encontrado na América do Sul ao chegarem, e como reflexo, não desenvolveram alto grau de socialidade. Os resultados sugerem que raposas tentaram evitar a competição com os lobos para não sobreporem seus nichos, sendo o fator fundamental para sua diversificação. / Phylogenetic comparative methods use information on ancestral relationships between species to test evolutionary hypotheses. In this context, the Ancestral Characters Reconstruction (ACR) can shed light on the already extinct organisms. The Canidae family has a wide range of behaviors, distributed throughout most of the planet. Its rich fossil history demonstrates processes that give us clues about the evolution and diversification of these behaviors over 46 Ma. Understanding the importance of biotic and abiotic factors in the evolution of carnivores has been one of the major challenges in macroevolutionary studies in recent years. Here we discuss the evolutionary aspects of Canidae with the purpose of demonstrating the role of environmental and behavioral factors, as well as interactions, in the diversification of the group. For this, the phylogeny was constructed for all living species of canids and a recently extinct species. In total, 37 species were included in the phylogenetic tree. A total of 23 molecular markers were used to construct the phylogeny. We also used 68 morphological characters. The construction of the phylogeny was done using Bayesian inference. The evolutionary model chosen in this step was GTR + G + I. The Monte Carlo Markov Chain algorithm (MCMC) was also used to obtain the posterior distribution, with 50 x 106 iterations. The phylogenetic tree was dated using the Penalized Likelihood method, where eleven fossil records of nodes known from the phylogeny were used. After the phylogeny, the behavioral data were obtained to perform the ACR in relation to the four attributes evaluated. The four reconstructions were created with inference in 1000 trees each. All ACR analyzes were performed using the parsimony method. In order to understand how the attributes correlate throughout the phylogeny, the Pagel correlation was calculated in addition to Phylogenetic Generalized Least Squares (PGLS). The topology obtained here was different from the other phylogenetic trees already created for Canidae. In addition, the time calibration indicates that the split between Canini and Vulpini occurred 12.6 Ma ago, different from what is pointed out in the literature. Concerning reconstructions, the ancestral lineages of wolves and foxes have developed the habit of living in open areas. South American canids have developed preference for forest areas. Regarding diet, Caninae's ancestor, as well as the direct ancestors of the Canini and Vulpini tribes, presented hypocampivorous feeding behavior. The ancestor of all canids present today had a low social organization, while the wolves developed a high social behavior, coinciding with the emergence of the hypercarnivore habit. Regarding the body size, the ancestral node to all canids had medium size, and the two tribes that have emerged from this lineage diverged their sizes. The Pagel test demonstrated that there is a correlation between diet and sociality, showing that diet led to changes in social behavior. The PGLSs show that three types of evolutionary models explain changes in attributes over time. The changes in the habitat use of the canids have accompanied the climatic changes in the planet during the last 13 Ma. The meso and hypocarnivorous feeding of the South Americans is due to the scenario found in South America when they arrived, and as a reflex, they did not develop high degree of Sociality. The results suggest that foxes tried to avoid competition with the wolves to avoid overlapping their niches, being the fundamental factor for their diversification.