Abstract There are rural areas in Ghana which are off-grid but where there is a need for street lighting. Street lighting facilities in such areas typically store electrical power in lead-acid batteries. The goal of this thesis is to construct a facility where fuel cells and hydrogen accumulation replace lead-acid batteries. The construction consists of a solar cell which transmits DC power to an electrolyzer which in turn produces hydrogen and oxygen. The gases accumulate in the container until nightfall when it starts providing DC power to street lighting via a fuel cell. The street lights can operate between 5 - 10 hours per day, depending on the power of the lamp. Besides providing street lighting the device may also be used for other purposes such as indoor lighting, charging of mobile phones etc. This means that, in addition to the basic purpose of providing electrical power to the street lights, other co-benefits of social significance can be achieved. The device is designed not to create any harmful emissions during operation, thus being environmentally sustainable. Further research on the device may in a second step entail: Construction of a prototype on a smaller scale, where calculations and function are tested. If it turns out well, a third step can begin: To build a full scale plant to be tested on site in Ghana.

Byggnadssektorn står idag för en betydande del av den totala konsumerade energin i världen. God och hälsosam livsmiljö kan uppnås med ökad användning av förnybara energikällor. Ett essentiellt kriterium är att integrera solceller i byggnader. Lindholmens Tekniska Gymnasium är i behov utav nya lokaler, där efterfrågas en integration av solceller i byggnadens klimatskal. Solcellsprodukter utformas ofta med fokus på energiproduktionen, och inte på deras design. Vid en lyckad integration skall den estetiska kravbilden så som den funktionella och tekniska uppfyllas. Detta skall göras med hänsyn till den arkitektoniska kvaliteten. I den här rapporten framställs ett förslag till valet av solceller, med syftet att påvisa en integrering av solceller ur ett arkitektoniskt fördelaktigt perspektiv.

Syftet med denna studie är att identifiera vilka förutsättningar som kan ligga bakom en investering i solceller i Sverige. Studiens forskningsfråga lyder, Vilka förutsättningar kan påverka energiföretag till att investera i solcellsanläggningar? samt Vilka aspekter kan göra en solcellsanläggning mer lönsam? För att kunna besvara frågeställningarna har ett induktivt angreppssätt i studien använts, som utgör kvalitativa bestämmelser utifrån respondenternas information. I denna studie får läsaren bekanta sig med sex olika solcellsanläggningar belägna i olika delar av landet för att få en inblick i hur solcellsmarknaden fungerar idag. Experter med god uppfattning om solcellsmarknaden har intervjuats för att ge sin syn på marknadsutvecklingen och hur framtiden för solceller ser ut.   Sverige hade under 2015 en installerad solcellseffekt på 47,4 MW vilket motsvarar en ökning med 31 % jämfört med år 2014. Investeringsstöd och låga priser på solcellsmoduler utgör idag de två främsta motiven för aktörer som vill investera i solceller. Företag ser i samband med en solcellsinvestering goda möjligheter att stärka sin miljöprofil, vilket på senare år har visat sig vara en strategi som prioriteras högre än investeringens avkastning. / The purpose of this study is to identify in which conditions that may lie behind an investment in photovoltaics in Sweden. The study’s research questions are What conditions may affect an energy corporation to invest in photovoltaic facilities? and What aspects can make a photovoltaic facility more profitable? An inductive approach has been used in this study in order to answer the research questions, which make qualitative regulations that are taken from the respondents’ information.  The reader will get to know about six different photovoltaic facilities that are placed around different areas in Sweden to get an insight on how the present market for photovoltaics works. Experts with solid competence about the market has been interviewed in order to provide a view on how the future holds for the development on the photovoltaic market. Sweden had during 2015 47,4 MW installed photovoltaic effect which results in an increase by 31 percent compared to 2014. Investment support and low prices on photovoltaic modules are one of the motives for operators to invest in photovoltaics. In a company’s point of view there’s a connection with photovoltaic investments which creates great opportunities to strengthen the brand’s image for sustainable development, which in recent years looks to be a strategy that holds a higher priority than the profit itself.

Two strong trends in society which may have a major impact on the electricity grid load in the near future are the expansion of micro production with solar cells, and the increasingly prominent role of electric cars in the automotive market. In this work, an attempt is made to develop standardized and not too time-consuming methods to study how different future scenarios with large-scale expansion of private micro production with solar cells, as well as a very proportion of cars are electric and being charged at home, affect the various parts of the network with regarding voltage levels and load rating. A number of assumptions about average size and production for solar cell installations, as well as about charging effects and charging behavior were made as input to the calculations. Two variants of methods were tested to carry out the calculations in Umeå Energy's network calculation program dpPower. In the first method, for each connection (at low voltage calculation) and mains station (at intermediate voltage calculation) a standardized production or consumption is specified which is then combined with the historical consumption which gives the worst case. The second, faster method uses a scale factor to increase or decrease a specific historical consumption so that the calculation is made for the worst case of net production/consumption in the calculated area that you want to study. The methods are deemed to work relatively well in assessing load levels, provided that when interpreting results, one is aware that mainly the scaling method can yield unrealistic figures for consumption and production at certain nodes. However, validation of the voltage calculations by comparison with data from electricity quality meters installed in certain network stations shows that the program in many cases exaggerates voltage drops. The difference to the measured values were up to 65%. Further studies of what causes the calculation errors need to be made in order to eliminate said causes before the proposed methods can be used for this purpose. / Två starka trender i samhället som kan innebära en stor inverkan på elnätets belastning i en nära framtid är utbyggnaden av mikroproduktion med solceller, samt elbilarnas allt mer framträdande roll på fordonsmarknaden. I detta arbete görs ett försök att ta fram metoder för att på ett standardiserat och inte allt för tidskrävande sätt studera hur olika framtida scenarier med storskalig utbyggnad av privat mikroproduktion med solceller, samt då en mycket stor andel av personbilsparken är elbilar som laddas hemma, påverkar nätets olika delar med avseende på spänningshållning och belastningsgrad. Ett antal antaganden om genomsnittlig storlek och produktion för solcellsinstallationer, samt om laddningseffekter och laddbeteende gjordes som indata till beräkningarna. Två varianter av metoder testas för att genomföra beräkningarna i Umeå Energis nätberäkningsprogram dpPower. Den första innebär att man för varje anslutning (vid lågspänningsberäkning) och nätstation (vid mellanspänningsberäkning) anger en standardiserad produktion eller förbrukning, som man sedan kombinerar med den historiska förbrukning som ger värsta fallet. Den andra, snabbare metoden innebär att man använder en skalfaktor för att öka eller minska en historisk förbrukning så att beräkningen görs för det värsta fall av nettoproduktion/förbrukning på det beräknade området man vill studera. Metoderna bedöms fungera relativt väl för att bedöma belastningsnivåer, förutsatt att man vid tolkningen av resultat är medveten om att främst skalningsmetoden kan ge orealistiska siffror för förbrukning och produktion i vissa knutpunkter. Validering av spänningsberäkningarna genom jämförelse med data från elkvalitetsmätare som finns installerade i vissa nätstationer visar dock att programmet i många fall beräknar för stora spänningsfall. I några fall var skillnaden mot det uppmätta värdet upp till 65%. Det gör att metoderna i dagsläget inte kan användas för att bedöma effekten på spänningshållning. Ytterligare studier om vad felberäkningarna beror på göras så att felen kan åtgärdas innan de föreslagna metoderna kan användas för detta syfte.

Due to the environmental issues, the amount of installed solar power increases. In the same time, the electric vehicle fleet is expanding rapidly. Those two growing technologies, if not controlled, can cause various unwanted effects for the electricity grid. In order to decrease their negative effects on the grid and benefit from it at the same time, these technologies have to work in synergy with each other. This synergy can be enabled through smart charging of electric vehicles. Therefore, the aim of this study is to develop a smart charging algorithm which uses solar production forecasts to charge the vehicles at a workplace. Furthermore, the goal is to examine how such control of the charging affects the self-consumption of solar power, self-sufficiency and the amount of energy imported from the grid as opposed to uncontrolled charging. To fulfill the goal, the algorithm was developed based on solar production forecasts. The forecasts were created through autoregressive models, AR and ARMA which were estimated using the actual solar production data collected at one of Uppsala regions solar production plants. Also, a case where ideal forecasts were used was applied. Furthermore, the charging need for various number of cars was simulated for every working day throughout an entire year in order to simulate the application of the algorithm and examine its performance but also to simulate the uncontrolled charging. The results, compared to the uncontrolled charging, show that the algorithm is able to increase the self-consumption of solar power by an average of 9,33 – 25,30 percentage points for 10 – 50 charging cars. It is also able to increase the selfsufficiency by an average of 42,65 – 31,28 percentage points for 10-50 cars respectively thus reducing the need of electricity imports from the grid. Furthermore, it was discovered that the results, the self-consumption and selfsufficiency, from the simulations with ideal forecasts differed only by up to 2 percentage points from the simulations where the forecasts were created through an AR(9) model (AR model of order 9). This allows a conclusion that a simple AR(9) model is completely sufficient to create forecasts that are good enough to produce satisfactory results. In general, it is concluded that the algorithm developed in this study is successful when it comes to increasing the self-consumption of the solar power, the selfsufficiency and decreasing the amount of energy needed from the electricity grid. This limits the negative impacts that the increasing solar power production and the growing electric vehicle fleet have on the electricity grid.

Preem has recently acquired a new office building and are interested inreducing the energy consumption, climate impact and annual energy costof the building. The purpose of this thesis is to examine how differentenergy efficiency measures as well as the installation of solar cellsaffect the energy use and climate impact of an office building. Three actions have been proposed, both separately and in combinationwith each other. These were attic insulation, change of ventilation andchange of heating system. The resulting simulations showed a reductionof between 3 and 65 %, depending on which energy efficiency measureswere implemented. Replacing the heating system resulted in the largestreduction. This study also showed that the most profitable way to place a PVsystem is in a south-westerly direction with a 25 degree slope. Thissolution has an installed power of 16.3 kWp and an annual electricityproduction of 12.96 MWh. This corresponds to a self-consumption rate of95.2 % and a self-sufficiency rate of 5.6 %. The highest electricityproduction was obtained when PV modules were placed on three differentrooftops and with a module slope of between 12 and 15 degrees,depending on the roof. This PV system has an installed power of 76.9kWp and an annual electricity production of 57.96 MWh. All solutionsled to a reduced climate impact.

The sun is the foundation of all life on earth. The potential regarding solar energy is relatively good in large parts of southern Sweden. Sweden has set an environmental goal that states that their electrical production will be generated from 100% renewable energy sources by 2040 at the latest. In order to achieve this goal, there will need to be extensive expansion of wind parks as well as solar parks. Sweden has not had the same development as Germany regarding the expansion of solar energy. The authors suggest that there is a need to investigate what factors influence the expansion of photovoltaics parks and what barriers are in the way of achieving large scale solar electricity production. The thesis will focus on solar expansion within the manufacturing sector as well as the agricultural sector within Halland county. The authors of this thesis aim to investigate the economic and administrative factors that influence investment opportunities alongside other factors that influence the expansion of solar energy. The study’s goal is to answer two research questions: “What factors are the most important to achieve large scale expansion of solar energy on manufacturing facilities and agricultural facilities?” “Which instruments and actions are required from society’s standpoint to enable large scale expansion of solar electricity production on manufacturing facilities as well as agricultural facilities in the county of Halland? “ The methodology used in this thesis is a qualitative approach where semi constructed interviews were implemented. There were six respondents that participated in the study. Whereas half were companies within the manufacturing industry or the agricultural sector, the rest were individuals within the field of solar energy. By conducting this study, several factors were identified that either promoted or hindered solar production within Halland county. The most prominent factors which drive development were economic and environmental factors, whilst laws and the investment cost was biggest factors that hindered development. In conclusion, the study suggests that there are changes in laws that need to be implemented to achieve large scale solar production within Halland county.

Hydrogen can be produced by solar power driven electrolysis and then be long-termed stored until an electrical demand emerge. Therefore, hydrogen energy storage have the potential to solve the issues with seasonal energy mismatch that generally occur in buildings with solar production. The process is done without any emissions, since the input and output are electricity from renewable resources, water, oxygen and heat. In this master thesis the purpose is to evaluate how a hydrogen energy storage can be used in a commercial building in order to reduce its grid power peaks. This is investigated by creating a model which simulates a hydrogen system, combined with a battery, in a grid-connected building in Uppsala. The model dimensions the system components by using six different operation strategies. The potential of using hydrogen storage in a commercial building is evaluated with respect to its energetic and economic feasibility. The result indicates that the building’s grid power peaks can be reduced by integrating a hydrogen system, and thereby savings in terms of electricity and heat are achieved. However, the net present value is negative for all operation strategies, which means that the investment is non-profitable. By varying several factors in a sensitivity analysis, it is discovered that the investment cost must be reduced in combination with a higher monthly power fee in order to make the investment profitable. There are, however, other values that can motivate an investment in a hydrogen system. An energy storage increases the flexibility in a building and also makes the building more robust towards power outages and high electricity prices. These qualities might be more desirable in a future electrical power system with more intermittent power production.

I detta examensarbete i energiteknik har en litteraturstudie om de vanligaste energisystemen i Sverige och en webbundersökning gjorts där 550 husägare i Järfälla kommun erbjudits att delta. I undersökningen ställdes 11 frågor om deras nuvarande energisystem och ifall de var benägna att investera i solkraft. Av de 550 tillfrågade valde 78 att delta i undersökningen vilket motsvarar 14% svarsfrekvens. Det utreddes även om de vanligaste anledningarna varför fler husägare inte investerat i solkraft. De anledningarna var främst av ekonomiska skäl och att deras hus inte var lämpat för solkraft på grund av husets läge och takkonstruktion. Utvecklingen av solkraft går i rask takt och med en ny skattereduktion för grön teknik förutser författaren att takten ökar de kommande åren, speciellt då elbilsmarknaden förväntas växa enormt och intresset för laddstationer i samband med detta. Utvecklingen av förnybara energisystem går också i rask takt, värmepumpar som ses som förnybar har ökat från 754 000 år 2009 till 1 227 000 år 2016. Undersökningen bekräftade utvecklingen, från undersökningen hade 43 deltagare installerat en luftvärmepump och 30 deltagare installerat bergvärme. 13 deltagare hade installerat solel och den vanligaste anledningen varför var att öka självständigheten och minska behovet av att köpa el, även att minska klimatpåverkan. De statliga bidragen har spelat stor roll i deras villighet att installera solel. De vanligaste anledningar varför fler inte installerat solel var de långa återbetalningstiderna och den begränsade lagringsfunktionen. Deltagarna med en elpanna installerad i fastigheten var mest benägen till att investera i förnybar energi genom värmepump och solel.

I detta examensarbete har syftet varit att undersöka hur man kan minska behovet av att behöva köpa energi till en fastighet med tillhörande byggnader. Fokus har legat på att producera nog med energi för att täcka fastighetsägarnas konsumtion av el. Projektet har även berört energioptimeringsåtgärder av enklare slag. Efter detta gjordes en fysisk genomgång av byggnaderna där mätning också genomfördes dels som underlag för en energibalans, dels som underlag när det undersöktes vilka energisparåtgärder som var ekonomiskt genomförbara, såsom tillläggsisolering av vinden. Sedan samlades det in offerter och annan viktig information, såsom energiproduktion och priser, för att sedan analyseras. Alla delar jämfördes och ställdes mot varandra för att komma fram till det som passade fastighetsägarna bäst. Lagring och vindkraft hade en för lång återbetalningstid gentemot vad ägarna hade efterfrågat då de ville att det skulle vara återbetalat innan produkternas livslängd var slut. Resultatet av vindkraften visade att vindhastigheterna inte kunde fastställas helt eftersom den vindmätning som gjorts har skett 25 km därifrån, vilket leder till en osäkerhet i hur mycket el som kan produceras. Det mest lönsamma var den största av de fyra solcellsparker som jämfördes. Den och det lilla vindkraftverket tillsammans producerar tillräckligt mycket el för att täcka deras behov. Däremot rekommenderades varken vindkraftverket eller batterilagring på grund av återbetalningstiden. Ägarna kan alltså producera den mesta elen med hjälp av solceller, dock inte allt enligt de beräkningar som gjorts. Förutom Vattenfalls solceller rekommenderades att tilläggsisolera vinden samt en laddbox från Vattenfall. Eftersom teorin i examensarbetet skulle baseras på granskade källor och inte på vinstdrivande källor användes studentlitteratur, publicerade rapporter och rapporter från myndigheter. / The purpose of this thesis has been to examine how to reduce the need to buy energy for a property with associated buildings. The focus has been on producing enough energy to cover the property owners' consumption of electricity. The project has also involved simpler energy optimization measures. After this, a physical review of the buildings was carried out, where measurement was also carried out partly as a basis for an energy balance and partly as a basis when examining which energy saving measures were economically feasible, such as additional insulation of the wind. Then quotes and other important information, such as energy production and prices, were collected and then analyzed. All parts were compared to each other to arrive at what best suited the property owners. Storage and wind power had too long a payback period against what the owners had asked for when they wanted it to be repaid before the end of product life. The result of the wind power showed that the wind speeds could not be fully determined since the wind measurement made was 25 km away, which leads to an uncertainty in how much electricity can be produced. The most profitable was the largest of the four solar cell parks compared. It and the small wind turbine together produce enough electricity to meet their needs. However, neither the wind turbine nor the battery storage was recommended because of the payback time. The owners can thus produce most of the electricity using solar cells, but not all according to the calculations made. In addition to Vattenfall's solar cells, it was recommended to insulate the wind and install a charging box from Vattenfall. Since the theory in the degree project should be based on audited sources and not on profit-making sources, student literature, published reports and reports from authorities were used.