INTRODUÇÃO: As prevalências de desnutrição infantil ainda são altas nos países da África Subsaariana; porém, há indícios de que a obesidade em adultos esteja aumentando. Neste cenário, se, por um lado, é importante combater a desnutrição, por outro, é fundamental identificar as tendências do excesso de peso ao longo do tempo, a fim de prevenir grandes elevações de obesidade e doenças crônicas. Com isso, os objetivos desta pesquisa foram: descrever as tendências de obesidade ao longo das últimas décadas em mulheres em idade fértil e em crianças menores de 5 anos, paralelamente àquelas de desnutrição nesse mesmo grupo de crianças em países da África Subsaariana; e identificar os fatores associados à desnutrição em crianças menores de 2 anos em um município de Luanda, Angola. MÉTODOS: Para descrever as tendências da situação nutricional, foram utilizados dados de inquéritos nacionais (Demographic and Health Surveys e Multiple Indicator Cluster Samples) de 13 países do continente africano, que tinham pelo menos quatro inquéritos disponíveis. Foram traçadas tendências para os desfechos: obesidade em mulheres com idade entre 15 e 49 anos, e sobrepeso, baixa estatura (stunting), baixo peso para altura (wasting), baixo peso para idade (underweight) e baixo peso ao nascer em crianças com menos de 5 anos. Para as tendências individuais de cada país, foi realizada regressão linear, enquanto para as tendências considerando o conjunto dos 13 países, empregou-se modelo de regressão multinível. Quanto à identificação dos fatores associados com a desnutrição, foram utilizados dados de um estudo transversal de base populacional realizado em Cacuaco, município da província de Luanda, em 2010. Os desfechos estudados foram baixa estatura (stunting) e baixo peso para idade (underweight). Foram estimadas razões de prevalência (RP) por regressão de Poisson com variância robusta utilizando modelo hierarquizado. RESULTADOS: A prevalência de obesidade cresceu entre mulheres em idade fértil na maior parte dos países estudados, em média 2,8 pontos percentuais por década (P<0,001), acompanhada por importante diminuição de stunting, em média de 5,6 pontos percentuais por década (P<0,001) e diminuição bem menor de wasting, em média de 1,1 ponto percentual por década (P=0,09), sem evidência, até o momento, de aumento de sobrepeso em crianças abaixo de 5 anos (aumento de 1,0 ponto percentual por década, P=0,14). Em Angola, das 749 crianças incluídas no estudo, 232 [32,0% (IC 95%: 28,7-35,5%)] tinham baixa estatura e 109 [15,1% (IC 95%: 12,6-17,9%)] estavam com peso baixo para idade. Na análise multivariável final, foram identificados os seguintes fatores associados com os desfechos pesquisados: ocorrência de diarreia nos últimos 15 dias (RP 1,39 [IC95% 1,06-1,84]) para baixa estatura; e presença de óbito de outros filhos (RP 1,52 [IC95% 1,01-2,28]) para baixo peso para idade. Em modelo composto apenas de fatores distais e intermediários, a presença de cuidador principal (outro que não a mãe) aumentou a prevalência de baixa estatura em 42% (RP 1,42; IC95% 1,10-1,84) e para cada mês mais tarde que a mãe o iniciou pré-natal, a prevalência de baixo peso para idade aumentou em 20% (RP 1,20; IC95% 1,03-1,40). CONCLUSÃO: Foi possível descrever a tendência preocupante de aumento de obesidade em mulheres em idade fértil nos países estudados. Em Angola, poucos fatores individuais foram descritos, sugerindo que a influência de fatores coletivos é importante. Esses dados devem ser úteis para o planejamento de ações visando, por um lado, à prevenção de uma epidemia de obesidade em crianças na África Subsaariana e, por outro, ao enfrentamento atual das altas taxas de desnutrição em crianças em Angola e outros países. / INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of child malnutrition is still high in sub-Saharan Africa; however, there is evidence that obesity in adults is increasing. In this scenario, on the one hand, it is important to tackle malnutrition, while on the other, it is essential to identify trends in excess weight over time, so as to focus attention on the prevention of large increases in obesity and the chronic diseases it causes. Thus, the objectives of this study were to describe trends in sub-Saharan Africa in obesity over the past decades in women of childbearing age and in children under 5 years of age, in parallel with those of malnutrition in the same group of children; as well as to identify factors associated with malnutrition in children under 2 years living in the suburban area of Luanda, Angola. METHODS: To describe the trends in nutritional status, secondary data from national surveys (Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Samples) of 13 African countries having at least four available surveys, were used. Trends were described for the outcomes obesity in women aged 15 to 49, and overweight, stunting, wasting, underweight and low birthweight in children under 5 years. For individual trends in each country, linear regression was performed. For trends considering the group of 13 countries, we used a multilevel regression model. To identify the factors associated with malnutrition, data from a cross-sectional population-based study held in Cacuaco, a municipality of Luanda, in 2010 were used. The outcomes studied were stunting and underweight. Prevalence ratios (PR) were estimated by Poisson regression with robust variance using a hierarchical model. RESULTS: The prevalence of obesity increased among women of reproductive age in most of the countries studied, on average 2.8 percentage points per decade (P<0.001), accompanied by significant reduction of stunting, on average 5.6 percentage points per decade (P<0.001) and a decrease, though much smaller, of wasting, on average 1.1 percentage points per decade (P=0.09), with no evidence, to date, of an increase in overweight in children under 5 years (increase of 1.0 percentage points per decade, P = 0.14).In Angola, among the 749 children included in the study, 232 [32.0% (95% CI: 28.7 to 35.5%)] were stunted and 109 [15.1% (95% CI: 12.6- 17.9)] were underweight. In the final multivariate analysis model, the following factors have been identified as associated with the studied outcomes: occurrence of diarrhea in the last 15 days (PR 1.39 [95% CI 1.06 to 1.84]) for stunting; and death of other children from the same mother (PR 1.52 [95% CI 1.01-2.28]) for underweight. In a model composed only of distal and intermediate factors, the primary caregiver not being the mother increased the prevalence of stunting by 42% (PR 1.42, 95%CI 1.10- 1.84) and each month that prenatal care was delayed increased the prevalence of underweight by 20% (PR 1.20, 95% CI 1.03-1.40). CONCLUSION: These results enabled the identification of a worrying increasing trend of obesity in women of childbearing age in the studied countries, in a context in which child malnutrition still prevails, especially stunting. In Angola, although it was possible to identify factors associated with malnutrition never before studied in Luanda, few individual factors were identified that increased the prevalence of malnutrition, suggesting that the problem results primarily from factors affecting society as a whole. These data should be useful for planning aimed, on the one hand, to prevent an epidemic of obesity in children in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other, meeting the challenge of current widespread childhood malnutrition in Angola and other countries.

abstract: This study investigated work-family conflict and related phenomena reported by female teachers in primary and secondary schools in Kenya. Specifically, it sought to first identify general work and family stressors and profession specific stressors, and how these stressors influenced teachers’ work-family conflict (WFC) and burnout. Second, it investigated whether support from home and work reduced these teachers’ perceived work-family conflict and burnout. Third, it investigated the impact of marital status, number and ages of children, length of teaching experience, and school location (city vs town) on perceived work-family conflict (WFC). In this study, 375 female teachers from Nairobi and three towns completed a survey questionnaire with both closed- and open-ended questions. Data analysis was conducted through descriptive and inferential statistics, and content analyses of qualitative data. There were five primary findings. (1) Teachers clearly identified and described stressors that led to work-family conflict: inability to get reliable support from domestic workers, a sick child, high expectations of a wife at home, high workloads at school and home, low schedule flexibility, and number of days teachers spend at school beyond normal working hours, etc. (2) Work-family conflict experienced was cyclical in nature. Stressors influenced WFC, which led to adverse outcomes. These outcomes later acted as secondary stressors. (3) The culture of the school and school’s resources influenced the level of support that teachers received. The level of WFC support that teachers received depended on the goodwill of supervisors and colleagues. (4) Work-family conflict contributed to emotional exhaustion, cynicism, and professional efficacy. Time and emotional investment in students’ parents was related to emotional exhaustion; time and emotional investment in students’ behavior, the number of years teaching experience, and number of children were related to professional efficacy. Support from teachers’ spouses enabled teachers to cope with cynicism. (5) While marital status did not influence WFC, school location did; teachers in Nairobi experienced more WFC than those in small towns. The study highlighted the importance of culture in studies of work-family conflict, as some of the stressors and WFC experiences identified seemed unique to the Kenyan context. Finally, theoretical implications, policy recommendations, and further research directions are presented. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Communication 2015

INTRODUÇÃO: As prevalências de desnutrição infantil ainda são altas nos países da África Subsaariana; porém, há indícios de que a obesidade em adultos esteja aumentando. Neste cenário, se, por um lado, é importante combater a desnutrição, por outro, é fundamental identificar as tendências do excesso de peso ao longo do tempo, a fim de prevenir grandes elevações de obesidade e doenças crônicas. Com isso, os objetivos desta pesquisa foram: descrever as tendências de obesidade ao longo das últimas décadas em mulheres em idade fértil e em crianças menores de 5 anos, paralelamente àquelas de desnutrição nesse mesmo grupo de crianças em países da África Subsaariana; e identificar os fatores associados à desnutrição em crianças menores de 2 anos em um município de Luanda, Angola. MÉTODOS: Para descrever as tendências da situação nutricional, foram utilizados dados de inquéritos nacionais (Demographic and Health Surveys e Multiple Indicator Cluster Samples) de 13 países do continente africano, que tinham pelo menos quatro inquéritos disponíveis. Foram traçadas tendências para os desfechos: obesidade em mulheres com idade entre 15 e 49 anos, e sobrepeso, baixa estatura (stunting), baixo peso para altura (wasting), baixo peso para idade (underweight) e baixo peso ao nascer em crianças com menos de 5 anos. Para as tendências individuais de cada país, foi realizada regressão linear, enquanto para as tendências considerando o conjunto dos 13 países, empregou-se modelo de regressão multinível. Quanto à identificação dos fatores associados com a desnutrição, foram utilizados dados de um estudo transversal de base populacional realizado em Cacuaco, município da província de Luanda, em 2010. Os desfechos estudados foram baixa estatura (stunting) e baixo peso para idade (underweight). Foram estimadas razões de prevalência (RP) por regressão de Poisson com variância robusta utilizando modelo hierarquizado. RESULTADOS: A prevalência de obesidade cresceu entre mulheres em idade fértil na maior parte dos países estudados, em média 2,8 pontos percentuais por década (P<0,001), acompanhada por importante diminuição de stunting, em média de 5,6 pontos percentuais por década (P<0,001) e diminuição bem menor de wasting, em média de 1,1 ponto percentual por década (P=0,09), sem evidência, até o momento, de aumento de sobrepeso em crianças abaixo de 5 anos (aumento de 1,0 ponto percentual por década, P=0,14). Em Angola, das 749 crianças incluídas no estudo, 232 [32,0% (IC 95%: 28,7-35,5%)] tinham baixa estatura e 109 [15,1% (IC 95%: 12,6-17,9%)] estavam com peso baixo para idade. Na análise multivariável final, foram identificados os seguintes fatores associados com os desfechos pesquisados: ocorrência de diarreia nos últimos 15 dias (RP 1,39 [IC95% 1,06-1,84]) para baixa estatura; e presença de óbito de outros filhos (RP 1,52 [IC95% 1,01-2,28]) para baixo peso para idade. Em modelo composto apenas de fatores distais e intermediários, a presença de cuidador principal (outro que não a mãe) aumentou a prevalência de baixa estatura em 42% (RP 1,42; IC95% 1,10-1,84) e para cada mês mais tarde que a mãe o iniciou pré-natal, a prevalência de baixo peso para idade aumentou em 20% (RP 1,20; IC95% 1,03-1,40). CONCLUSÃO: Foi possível descrever a tendência preocupante de aumento de obesidade em mulheres em idade fértil nos países estudados. Em Angola, poucos fatores individuais foram descritos, sugerindo que a influência de fatores coletivos é importante. Esses dados devem ser úteis para o planejamento de ações visando, por um lado, à prevenção de uma epidemia de obesidade em crianças na África Subsaariana e, por outro, ao enfrentamento atual das altas taxas de desnutrição em crianças em Angola e outros países. / INTRODUCTION: The prevalence of child malnutrition is still high in sub-Saharan Africa; however, there is evidence that obesity in adults is increasing. In this scenario, on the one hand, it is important to tackle malnutrition, while on the other, it is essential to identify trends in excess weight over time, so as to focus attention on the prevention of large increases in obesity and the chronic diseases it causes. Thus, the objectives of this study were to describe trends in sub-Saharan Africa in obesity over the past decades in women of childbearing age and in children under 5 years of age, in parallel with those of malnutrition in the same group of children; as well as to identify factors associated with malnutrition in children under 2 years living in the suburban area of Luanda, Angola. METHODS: To describe the trends in nutritional status, secondary data from national surveys (Demographic and Health Surveys and Multiple Indicator Cluster Samples) of 13 African countries having at least four available surveys, were used. Trends were described for the outcomes obesity in women aged 15 to 49, and overweight, stunting, wasting, underweight and low birthweight in children under 5 years. For individual trends in each country, linear regression was performed. For trends considering the group of 13 countries, we used a multilevel regression model. To identify the factors associated with malnutrition, data from a cross-sectional population-based study held in Cacuaco, a municipality of Luanda, in 2010 were used. The outcomes studied were stunting and underweight. Prevalence ratios (PR) were estimated by Poisson regression with robust variance using a hierarchical model. RESULTS: The prevalence of obesity increased among women of reproductive age in most of the countries studied, on average 2.8 percentage points per decade (P<0.001), accompanied by significant reduction of stunting, on average 5.6 percentage points per decade (P<0.001) and a decrease, though much smaller, of wasting, on average 1.1 percentage points per decade (P=0.09), with no evidence, to date, of an increase in overweight in children under 5 years (increase of 1.0 percentage points per decade, P = 0.14).In Angola, among the 749 children included in the study, 232 [32.0% (95% CI: 28.7 to 35.5%)] were stunted and 109 [15.1% (95% CI: 12.6- 17.9)] were underweight. In the final multivariate analysis model, the following factors have been identified as associated with the studied outcomes: occurrence of diarrhea in the last 15 days (PR 1.39 [95% CI 1.06 to 1.84]) for stunting; and death of other children from the same mother (PR 1.52 [95% CI 1.01-2.28]) for underweight. In a model composed only of distal and intermediate factors, the primary caregiver not being the mother increased the prevalence of stunting by 42% (PR 1.42, 95%CI 1.10- 1.84) and each month that prenatal care was delayed increased the prevalence of underweight by 20% (PR 1.20, 95% CI 1.03-1.40). CONCLUSION: These results enabled the identification of a worrying increasing trend of obesity in women of childbearing age in the studied countries, in a context in which child malnutrition still prevails, especially stunting. In Angola, although it was possible to identify factors associated with malnutrition never before studied in Luanda, few individual factors were identified that increased the prevalence of malnutrition, suggesting that the problem results primarily from factors affecting society as a whole. These data should be useful for planning aimed, on the one hand, to prevent an epidemic of obesity in children in sub-Saharan Africa, and on the other, meeting the challenge of current widespread childhood malnutrition in Angola and other countries.

This paper examines and problematize the effects of biofuel production by focusing on local communities in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). The premise lays in a critique of neoliberal thoughts of development and the concept of sustainable development. The establishment of biofuel production in SSA has been depicted to carry with it opportunities of development for the rural population. However, there have been a big interest from foreign actors looking to invest in sub-Saharan biofuel production which have raced concern for land grabbing. A conflict of interest has emerged between Southern and Northern interests. A literature study is used as the method to examine reported outcomes on local communities in the proximity of biofuel production in order to determine if sub-Saharan biofuel production is established for the development need of SSA or the interest of the North. To analyze the results a theoretical framework has been constructed from concepts of large-scale land acquisition (land grabbing), environmental justice and the four worldviews market liberalism, institutionalism, bioenvironmentalism and social greens. The paper concludes that the large-scale production of biofuels is highly problematic due to the risk of land grabbing and Northern mitigation schemes are based on Southern lands raises the question of environmental justice. Depending on which worldview one adopts there can be several explanations to why this occur.

The purpose of the study is to investigate the relationship between two phenomena which are much-disputed and whose mechanisms and processes are interlaced with each other: trade and human development. The focus is a specific type of South-South trade; interregional trade in Sub-Saharan Africa, as well as international trade to and from Sub-Saharan Africa.A quantitate method, using a deductive approach, was utilized in this study. The quantitative research data was accessed from the World Bank database and the human development reports of the UNDP. The data was processed in regressions and the level of co-variation (a term used in this paper as the statistical relation between data) between the variables is established and shown through the unit of measurement r².The results tend to indicate that the level of statistical co-variation between interregional trade and international trade in various commodities and human development in Sub-Saharan Africa exist but are varied. Interregional trade does not seem to have a stronger co-variation with human development than general international trade despite the structural viewpoint of the academic field. Interestingly, the commodity traded with does have a varied impact on the level of co-variation with human development.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Bionomics of vector-borne pathogens (VBPs) is a complex phenomenon that involves understanding the ecology of arthropod borne pathogens and vertebrate hosts potentially involved in their transmission cycles. Investigations into the bionomics of viral and bacterial VBPs circulating in Baringo and Homa Bay Counties of Kenya were carried out. Specifically, vertebrate hosts represented in mosquito bloodmeals, presence of arboviruses in blood fed mosquitoes and patients presenting with acute undiagnosed febrile illnesses in rural health facilities, and tick borne pathogens (TBPs) diversity in ticks of animals were identified. Mosquitoes were trapped by BG sentinel and CDC light traps, while ticks were sampled directly from domestic animals and tortoises close to human habitation along the shores and adjacent islands of Lakes Victoria and Baringo in Kenya. Blood and sera were also sampled from patients presenting with acute febrile illnesses visiting four rural health facilities in Homa Bay County. Mosquitoes and ticks were sorted and identified to species using standard morphological taxonomic keys. All the biological samples (blood-fed mosquitoes, ticks and blood/sera) were processed using molecular and culture procedures for detection of VBPs (arboviruses, Ehrlichia, Anaplasma, Rickettsia and protozoa). Among 445 blood-fed Aedeomyia, Aedes, Anopheles, Culex, Mansonia, and Mimomyia mosquitoes, 33 bloodmeal hosts were identified including humans, eight domestic animal species, six peridomestic animal species and 18 wildlife species. Further detection of Sindbis and Bunyamwera viruses was done on blood-fed mosquito homogenates by Vero cell culture and RTPCR in Culex, Aedeomyia, Anopheles and Mansonia mosquitoes from Baringo that had fed on humans and livestock. In TBPs assay, 585 tick pools were analysed consisting of 4,126 ticks collected in both study areas. More ticks were sampled in Baringo (80.5%), compared to Homa Bay (19.5%). In Baringo, agents of ehrlichiosis were detected from Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks including Ehrlichia ruminantium (12.3%), Ehrichia canis (10.5%) and Paracoccus sp. (4.4%). Agents of anaplasmosis included Anaplasma ovis (7.2%), Anaplasma platys (4.4%) and Anaplasma bovis (4.0%), all from Hyalomma, Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus ticks, as well as agents of rickettsiosis, including Rickettsia africae, Rickettsia aeschlimannii, Rickettsia rhipicephali, Rickettsia montanensis and a Rickettsia sp. that was not conclusively characterized. Babesia caballi, Theileria sp. and Hepatozoon fitzsimonsi were also detected from both Rhipicephalus ticks and Amblyomma ticks. In Homa Bay, Ehrichia ruminantium (17.5%) and Ehrichia canis (9.3%) were isolated from Amblyomma latum and Rhipicephalus pulchellus, as well as Anaplasma platys (14.4%) and Anaplasma ovis (14.4%) from Amblyomma and Rhipicephalus species. In determination of the occurrence of arboviruses among patients presenting with acute febrile illnesses, acute Bunyamwera 3 (0.9%) and Sindbis 2 (0.6%) infections were detected by RT-PCR and cell culture and Sindbis seroprevalence was determined by plaque assay. Though a significant proportion of these patients tested positive for low Plasmodium parasitemia, none were co-infected with Plasmodium parasites and arboviruses. This study highlights the presence and relative importance of zoonotic VBPs in both study areas.

<p> "Bantu" is a term used to describe lineages of people in around 600 different ethnic groups on the African continent ranging from modern-day Cameroon to South Africa. The migration of the Bantu people, which occurred around 3,000 years ago, was influential in spreading culture, language, and genetic traits and helped to shape human diversity on the continent. Research in the 1970s was completed to geographically divide the Bantu languages into 16 zones now known as "Guthrie zones" (Guthrie, 1971). </p><p> Researchers have postulated the migratory pattern of the Bantu people by examining cultural information, linguistic traits, or small genetic datasets. These studies offer differing results due to variations in the data type used. Here, an assessment of the Bantu migration is made using a large dataset of combined cultural data and genetic (Y-chromosomal and mitochondrial) data. </p><p> One working hypothesis is that the Bantu expansion can be characterized by a primary split in lineages, which occurred early on and prior to the population spreading south through what is now called the Congolese forest (i.e. "early split"). A competing hypothesis is that the split occurred south of the forest (i.e. "late split"). </p><p> Using the comprehensive dataset, a phylogenetic tree was developed on which to reconstruct the relationships of the Bantu lineages. With an understanding of these lineages in hand, the changes between Guthrie zones were traced geospatially. </p><p> Evidence supporting the "early split" hypothesis was found, however, evidence for several complex and convoluted paths across the continent were also shown. These findings were then analyzed using dimensionality reduction and machine learning techniques to further understand the confidence of the model.</p><p>

Master of Public Health - MPH / It is well documented that mortality rates have decreased and the survival of HIV and AIDS patients has been prolonged since the introduction of highly active antiretroviral therapy (HAART) in 1996. Although HAART has dramatically improved the prognosis of HIV disease, some HIV patients on HAART still die of HIV related illnesses. It is important to understand what these factors are in order to mitigate the impact on these factors on patient survival and achieve better outcome for these patients. The aim of this study was to determine risk factors for long term survival of patients on HAART in Uganda. Data for 2,244 out of 30,000 clients receiving care and treatment at TASO Entebbe was retrospectively analyzed. TASO Entebbe is a non-governmental HIV clinic that provides care and treatment to HIV positive clients. Long term survival in this case was defined as survival for more than 5 years after initiation on HAART. Logistic regression and survival analysis were conducted. Female clients had a 12% lower risk of death compared to the male clients (AHR=0.88 [CI: 0.443- 0.936]). Clients that had pulmonary TB had 1.3 times higher risk of death compared to clients that did not have pulmonary TB (AHR=1.33 [CI: 1.162-2.733]). Clients initiated at CD4 cell counts less than 250 cells/μl had almost 7 times higher adjusted odds of death compared to those initiated at CD4 cell counts greater than 500 cells/μl (AOR= 6.95 [CI: 2.882-16.744]) and clients initiated at CD4 cell counts between 250 cells/μl and 500 cells/μl almost 3 times higher adjusted odds of death compared to clients initiated at CD4 cell counts greater than 500 cells/μl (AOR 2.56 [CI: 1.004-6.520]). It is recommended that an aggressive HIV testing strategy be put in place to facilitate early identification of HIV positive patients. Early identification would enable early initiation into HAART well before the CD4 cell counts fall below 500 cells/μl. The observed higher risk of mortality amongst men suggests interventions to promote early HIV testing and treatment initiation amongst men. The observed high risk of mortality for patients with pulmonary TB, calls for aggressive TB case finding and treatment of positive in order to reduce the HIV/TB related mortality.

Peacekeepers are widely viewed as being at growing risk of direct and deliberate violence. Attacks are recorded in many and diverse contexts, targeting interventions deployed by both the United Nations and other organisations. This dissertation seeks to advance the understanding of such violence, studying its causes, characteristics and consequences. The impact of deliberate violence against peacekeepers can be severe; it often extends past those immediately affected and impacts interveners’ ability to accomplish their aims. As a topic of scientific inquiry, however, violence against peacekeepers has only recently seen a growth in interest, and systematic study has so far been sparse. This dissertation makes a number of theoretical and empirical contributions to this emerging area of research. The dissertation contains four individual essays. To set the stage and provide foundations for further studies, Essay I specifies key concepts and maps the research field to date. It promotes a wider, and arguably more theoretically appropriate, conceptualisation of violence against peacekeepers than used in earlier studies. Essay II presents new, systematically collected event data on violence against UN and non-UN peacekeepers deployed to conflict-affected countries in sub-Saharan Africa between 1989 and 2009. Patterns from the data demonstrate that, while widely prevalent, violence against peacekeepers is not ubiquitous to peacekeeping and displays considerable variation within and across interventions. Drawing on this novel data, Essay III provides one of the first systematic studies on the time-varying determinants of rebel attacks on peacekeepers, showing its occurrence to be closely linked to rebel performance on the battlefield. Finally, Essay IV explores how operating in a challenging security environment can affect peacekeepers’ ability to perform core mission functions, drawing on the case of the UN Multidimensional Integrated Stabilization Mission in Mali (MINUSMA). The analysis illustrates how such an environment may expose and further constrain already limited capabilities and willingness for robust and armed action in UN peacekeeping operations. Taken together, the essays advance our understanding of the causes, characteristics and consequences of violence against peacekeepers.

Background: Women's empowerment is hypothesized as a predictor of reproductive health outcomes. It is believed that empowered girls and women are more likely to delay marriage, plan their pregnancies, receive prenatal care, and have their childbirth attended by a skilled health provider. The objective of this study was to assess the association between women's empowerment and use of modern contraception among a representative sample of Nigerian women. Methods: This study used the 2003, 2008, and 2013 Nigeria Demographic and Health Survey data. The analytic sample was restricted to 35,633 women who expressed no desire to have children within 2 years following each survey, were undecided about timing for children, and who reported no desire for more children. Measures of women's empowerment included their ability to partake in decisions pertaining to their healthcare, large household purchases, and visit to their family or relatives. Multivariable regression models adjusting for respondent's age at first birth, religion, education, wealth status, number of children, and geopolitical region were used to measure the association between empowerment and use of modern contraceptives. Results: The proportion of women who participated in decisions to visit their relatives increased from 42.5% in 2003 to 50.6% in 2013. The prevalence of women involved in decision-making related to large household purchases increased from 24.3% in 2003 to 41.1% in 2013, while the proportion of those who partook in decision related to their health care increased from 28.4% in 2003 to 41.9% in 2013. Use of modern contraception was positively associated with women's participation in decisions related to large household purchases [2008: adjusted OR (aOR) = 1.15; 95% CI = 1.01-1.31] and (2013; aOR = 1.60; 1.40-1.83), health care [2008: (aOR = 1.20; 1.04-1.39) and (2013; aOR = 1.39; 1.22-1.59)], and visiting family or relatives [2013; aOR = 1.58; 1.36-1.83]. The prevalence of modern contraceptive use among women with need for contraception increased marginally from 11.1% in 2003 to 12.8% in 2013.