As light-weighting becomes a priority for the automotive industry, refill friction stir spot welding emerges with enormous potential to supplement or replace conventional spot joining processes. This thesis addresses the limitations of current tooling options by examining materials beyond steel for use in RFSSW. Contained herein is an analysis of weld quality as a function of tool material, a production evaluation of RFSSW using various tool materials, and an assessment of long-term performance of a tungsten carbide tool. Over the course of this research, tungsten carbide emerged as a viable candidate for long-lasting RFSSW tooling.

Στην παρούσα εργασία μελετήθηκαν λεπτά υμένια οξειδίου του αλουμινίου (Al2O3) και οζειδίου του ζιρκονίου (ZrO2). Η ανάπτυξη των οξειδίων έγινε πάνω σε υπόστρωμα γερμανίου (Ge) με την τεχνική εναπόθεσης ατομικού στρώματος (Atomic Layer Deposition, ALD). Επίσης μελετήθηκαν υμένια οξειδίου του βολφραμίου (WO3), των οποίων η εναπόθεση έγινε με δυο διαφορετικές τεχνικές, πάνω σε υπόστρωμα P3HT:PCBM. Η μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε σε συνθήκες υπερυψηλού κενού (Ultra High Vacuum, UHV) με επιφανειακά ευαίσθητες τεχνικές. Κύριος στόχος αυτής της εργασίας, είναι για τα οξείδια αλουμινίου και ζιρκονίου η διερεύνηση της χημικής σύστασης και της ηλεκτρονιακής δομής ενώ θα γίνει μια εκτίμηση του πάχους των υμενίων καθώς και σύγκριση με την αναμενόμενη τιμή συμφωνα με την διαδικασία παρασκευής. Για οξείδια του βολφραμίου έγινε μελέτη τόσο της επιφανειακής χημικής σύστασης όσο και της ηλεκτρονιακής δομής της διεπιφάνειας του οξειδίου του βολφραμίου (WO3) με το υπόστρωμα P3HT:PCBM καθώς και μία σύγκριση των αποτελεσμάτων ανάμεσα στην εξάχνωση με δέσμη ηλεκτρονίων (Electron Beam Evaporation) και τη μέθοδο διαλύματος-πηκτώματος (Sol-Gel) τεχνικές οι οποίες χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για την εναπόθεση των υμενίων οξειδίου του βολφραμίου. / In the present work,studied thin films of aluminum oxide (Al2O3) and zirconium oxide (ZrO2) thin films. Atomic Layer Deposition technique (ALD) was used for the growth of oxide on the germanium (Ge) substrate. Also studied films of tungsten oxide (WO3), which were deposited with two different techniques, onto P3HT:PCBM substrate. The study was conducted under conditions of UHV (Ultra High Vacuum) using surface sensitive techniques. The main objective of this work was to investigate the chemical composition and electronic structure and make an estimate of the thickness of aluminum oxide and zirconium oxide thin films. The thickness was compared with the expected value according to the manufacturing process. For the tungsten oxides were studied the surface chemical composition and the electronic structure of the WO3/P3HT:PCBM interface as well as a comparison of results between the Electron Beam Evaporation and Sol-Gel method, techniques which were used for the deposition of thin films of tungsten oxide.

Ces travaux de thèse s'inscrivent dans le contexte des efforts de recherches menés pour proposer des matériaux susceptibles de lever les verrous technologiques au développement des piles à combustible à membrane. L'un de ces enjeux est l'augmentation de la température de fonctionnement (150 - 250 °C) afin d'améliorer les cinétiques réactionnelles permettant une diminution de la quantité de catalyseur ainsi qu'une simplification de la gestion de l'eau, une réduction du système de refroidissement et une meilleure résistance à l'empoisonnement au monoxyde de carbone du platine. La motivation de cette étude a été de substituer au carbone un matériau support de catalyseur avec une plus grande résistance électrochimique.Notre choix s'est porté sur le carbure de tungstène qui, en plus d'une conductivité électronique élevée, présente une activité catalytique pour l'oxydation de l'hydrogène et la réduction de l'oxygène en milieu acide. La mise au point d'une méthode de synthèse innovante par voie hydrothermale a permis l'élaboration de microsphères de carbure de tungstène (MCT) de surface spécifique élevée (68 m2.g-1 avec 4 % de carbone résiduel) et d'architecture inusuelle. Des nanoparticules de platine de taille contrôlée ont été préparées par méthode polyol afin d'être déposées en surface des MCT. Après caractérisations électrochimiques ex-situ couplées à des analyses de surface (XPS) de ces catalyseurs Pt/WC, la mise en forme d'électrodes par enduction et transfert sur la membrane a permis la réalisation d'assemblages membrane - électrode et leurs caractérisations en pile à combustible. Des membranes polybenzimidazole dopé acide phosphorique (PBI-H3PO4) ont été utilisées pour remplacer les membranes Nafion afin d'augmenter la température de fonctionnement. / The objective of this work was to develop alternative suitable materials to increase operating temperature of a Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell. The increase of the operating temperature (150 - 250 °C) is attractive for cost reduction and reliability in terms of reaction kinetics, catalyst tolerance, heat rejection and water management. Our work was focused on tungsten carbide which has an high electrical conductivity and exhibits a significant catalytic activity for hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction in acidic environment. We have reported a novel approach to produce tungsten carbide microspheres (TCM) with an high surface area (68 m2.g-1 including only 4 % of residual carbon) and an unusual architecture. Platinum nanoparticles were prepared by polyol method and were then deposited on TCM. Physical, chemical as well as electrochemical characterisations of WC supported platinum nanoparticles Pt/WC are described and discussed in comparison with a platinum electrocatalyst on a commercial carbon support (Vulcan XC-72R). Membrane Electrode Assembly was then prepared by coating - decal process, and characterised by single cell test and compared to conventional Pt/C assembly. Phosphoric acid doped polybenzimidazole PBI(H3PO4) was used as electrolyte to replace Nafion membrane in order to carry out fuel cell testing at higher temperature.

L'enjeu de cette thèse réside dans la compréhension et l'amélioration de la sulfuration de catalyseurs à base de W. Elle a pour objectif la rationalisation des différentes étapes de préparation de catalyseurs d’hydrotraitement de type NiWS depuis la préparation jusqu'au test catalytique par une approche moléculaire (appelée «chimie de surface contrôlée» ou CSC), ce qui permet de proposer de nouvelles voies pour lever le verrou majeur, lié à la mauvaise sulfuration du W. Au cœur de cette approche se situe l'utilisation d'une méthode de préparation originale, ayant recours à des composés moléculaires métallo-organiques bien-définis comme précurseurs de la phase sulfurée WS2, combinée à une analyse poussée par spectroscopies multiples (IR, RMN, XPS) et chimie computationnelle.La famille des alcoxydes de tungstène a été sélectionnée ; les précurseurs mono ou di-nucléaires tels que W(OEt)6, [W(=O)(OEt)4]2 ou [W(OEt)5]2 ont été greffés sur silice-alumine partiellement deshydroxylée, et leur conversion en phase sulfure a montré que le type de précurseurs moléculaires influençaient peu les propriétés des catalyseurs non promus (WS2/ASA), en termes de taux de sulfuration (déterminé par XPS) ou d’activité catalytique, en hydrogénation du toluène en présence d’aniline. Le composé [W(OEt)5]2 a ensuite été sélectionné pour approfondir l’étude des catalyseurs préparés par CSC.L'approche visant à améliorer la compréhension des différentes espèces de surface formées a été réalisée par l'étude des matériaux avant et après sulfuration. L'augmentation de la quantité de W déposé sur les matériaux CSC a permis de révéler la formation de (1) une couche d’espèces greffées sur la surface de silice-alumine, puis (2) de couches successives, formées d'espèces plus mobiles. L'étude portant sur la sulfuration de ces matériaux en fonction de leur teneur en W, et de la température de sulfuration, a permis de les comparer aux catalyseurs sulfurés dits «conventionnels». Cette étude approfondie a mis en évidence une amélioration de la sulfuration du W pour les matériaux CSC aux températures habituellement utilisées (350°C). La vitesse intrinsèque d’hydrogénation des catalyseurs CSC, jusqu’à deux fois supérieure à celle des catalyseurs conventionnels, a en partie été expliquée par un meilleur taux de sulfuration, et par la morphologie 2D des feuillets WS2 (STEM-HAADF), de forme triangulaire tronquée, dans le cas d’un catalyseur conventionnel.Finalement, ayant démontré que l’emploi d’espèces moléculaires mono et binucléaires permettait d’améliorer les catalyseurs non promus par rapport à l’approche conventionnelle utilisant des clusters polyanioniques, les catalyseurs promus de type NiW/ASA ont été étudiés. Différents précurseurs ont été utilisés (par exemple Ni(acac)2) ainsi que différentes méthodes de dépôt (dépôt du nickel sur un matériau sulfuré, ou non) et quantités de nickel. Ces travaux ont permis d’estimer l’influence de ces paramètres sur la sulfurabilité du W et du Ni, ainsi que sur l’activité catalytique des catalyseurs, et montrer que l’emploi d'une approche moléculaire dans la préparation des phases NiWS supportées permet d’améliorer la promotion des feuillets sulfures par le nickel, mais aussi d'accéder à des catalyseurs pouvant avoir des vitesses intrinsèques d’hydrogénation quatre fois supérieures celles de catalyseurs conventionnelles de référence. Ces résultats catalytiques sont très probablement liés à une balance optimisée entre «nature» et «quantité» de sites actifs mixtes Ni-W. Cela démontre l’intérêt d’une approche moléculaire pour la préparation de catalyseurs d'hydrotraitement plus performants. / The aim of this thesis is to understand and improve the sulphidation of W-based hydrotreating catalysts by understanding and characterising each step of their preparation, from the synthesis to catalytic tests, via a controlled surface chemistry approach (or "CSC", also referred as surface organometallic chemistry, "SOMC", in the literature). This molecular approach opens new avenues for the improvement of W sulphidation, which is one strong limitation for using this metal in hydrotreatment. The core of this study is based on the use of well-defined metallo-organic precursors as precursors of the tungsten sulphide phase, each step of materials preparation being characterised by multiple spectroscopy techniques (IR, NMR, XPS) combined with ab initio molecular modelling.Mono or dinuclear tungsten alkoxides such as [W(OEt)5]2, W(OEt)6 or [W(=O)(OEt)4]2 were grafted on partially dehydroxylated amorphous silica-alumina. Their conversion into sulphide materials reveals that the precursor does not influence significantly the amount of WS2 phase formed (level of sulphidation observed by XPS) as well as catalytic properties in toluene hydrogenation in the presence of aniline. Only [W(OEt)5]2 was used in the following experiments.So as to better understand the genesis of the sulphide phase, CSC materials were characterised before and after sulphidation. Before sulphidation, the use of increasing amounts of W precursor reveals the formation of (1) first, a layer of tungsten surface species grafted on the surface, and (2) second, layers of more mobile species, more loosely bonded to the grafted species. Then, these CSC materials were sulphided into WS2 catalysts (with different W-loading, and different sulphidation temperatures) and were compared to conventionally prepared samples. The results reveal an improvement of tungsten sulphidation for CSC samples already at ambient sulphidation temperature and also at more usual sulphidation temperatures (350°C). Catalytic activities up to 2 times higher than conventional references were also obtained. They are explained in part by the better level of sulphidation of CSC samples and by a different 2D morphology of WS2 crystallites (STEM-HAADF), observed to be hexagonal-like for CSC samples while conventional ones have truncated triangle-like shapes.Then, as non-promoted CSC samples were more active than their conventional counterparts, nickel promoted catalysts (NiWS) were prepared, with the use of different Ni precursors (such as Ni(acac)2), different preparation methods and Ni amounts. This study gives insights into the sulphidation of W and Ni, and reveals that samples prepared via a molecular approach (CSC) can exhibit intrinsic hydrogenation rates up to four times higher than reference catalysts. These results are explained by an optimal balance between the nature of active Ni-W mixed sites and their amount. These interesting results, obtained for non-promoted and Ni-promoted catalysts, show that the use of a molecular approach is suitable to design highly active hydrotreating catalysts.

L’objectif de ce travail est de concevoir un outil d’atomisation adapté à la production de poudres de carburede tungstène dans l’entreprise Technogenia, située à Saint-Jorioz (74). Plus généralement, nous avons étudiéune nouvelle conception d’atomiseur rotatif pour lequel les surfaces d’atomisation sont orientées selon un angled’incidence non nul. Une telle orientation permet alors d’exploiter de façon plus efficace la fréquence de rotationde l’atomiseur ainsi que les forces de centrifugation et de Coriolis. A partir de cette base de réflexion, troisgéométries de surface d’atomisation ont été étudiées : des surfaces lisses, des surfaces pourvues de structurationsde long de leur bord de fuite et des surfaces matricées de perforations.Les différents modes de déstabilisation des écoulements liquides ont été observés grâce à l’acquisition de vidéosultra-rapides des différentes étapes de l’impact d’une goutte unique sur les différentes géométries de surfacesd’atomisation étudiées. Les processus d’atomisation peuvent ainsi varier entre la rupture de jets liquides régulierscausée par des instabilités de type Rayleigh-Plateau et la rupture de nappes liquides causée par des instabilitésde type Rayleigh-Taylor et/ou l’initiation de perforations au coeur des nappes et films liquides. Les vidéos dessprays aqueux ainsi que l’observation au microscope des poudres métalliques nous permettent de caractériser lessprays produits. Sur l’ensemble de nos expériences nous observons que la finesse de l’atomisation s’améliore àmesure que la fréquence de rotation augmente ; ce qui constitue l’objectif prioritaire du procédé développé dans lathèse. Cependant, les surfaces texturées, certes compatibles avec les liquides classiques (aqueux ou organiques),ne le sont plus avec les contraintes induites par du métal à haute température de fusion, tel le carbure detungstène fondu objet de la thèse. En conséquence, seules les surfaces lisses sont aujourd’hui retenues et fontl’objet de développements dans le cadre de la production de poudres métalliques au sein de Technogenia. / The aim of this work is to design a spray tool for the production of tungsten carbide powder for the companyTechnogenia, located in Saint-Jorioz (74). Thus, we have studied a new design of rotary atomizer based onatomization surface oriented at a non-zero incidence angle. Such an orientation can then allow to use moreeffectively the rotation frequency of the atomizer and the centrifugal and Coriolis forces. From this base reflection,three geometries of atomization surface were studied : smooth surfaces, surfaces with serrated structurationsalong their trailing edge and multi-perforated surfaces.The different destabilization modes of liquid flows were observed through high-speed videos of the different stagesof the single drop impact on each atomization surfaces. The atomization process can thus vary between liquid jetbreakup caused by Rayleigh-Plateau instabilities and liquid sheet breakup caused by Rayleigh-Taylor instabilitiesand/or initiating of holes in liquid films or sheets. Videos of aqueous sprays and microscopic observation of metalpowders allow us to characterize sprays. On all of our experiments, we observe that the atomisation gets better(producing finer spray), as the frequency of rotation increases. Although the textured surfaces are compatiblewith usual liquids (aqueous or organical), they can’t stand the constraints imposed by metal with a high meltingtemperature such as tungsten carbide, the object of this thesis. Therefore, only the smooth surfaces are nowthe subject of an industrial development to produce metallic powder with Technogenia company.

Les travaux présents ici portent sur l’étude et la prospection de matériaux ferroiques. Cette étude consiste en une approche revêtant plusieurs aspects que sont la chimie du solide, la physique du solide et la science des matériaux. Deux parties sont développées, avec deux approches différentes. La première se concentre sur les liens entre composition/structure/propriétés dans des matériaux de la famille des TTB dérives de Ba2NdFeNb4O15 à travers l’étude de solutions solides à base de Li et l’étude de l’impact des différents paramètres de synthèse sur la nature de l’anomalie diélectrique mesurées sur pastilles densifiées. La mise en évidence de modulation structurale dans cette famille de matériaux semble être en lien direct avec l’observation des variations de propriétés diélectriques. L’utilisation de diffraction électronique notamment permet la mise en évidence de ces modulations structurales et leur évolution en température. Dans une seconde partie, l’approche consiste à utiliser le Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) comme technique de densification pour des matériaux dits “fragiles” mais aussi d’explorer des propriétés diélectriques jusqu’alors inaccessibles, sur matériaux massifs. Le développement de la technique SPS à basse température permet ainsi non seulement de densifier à basse température des matériaux fragiles, mais aussi d’obtenir des phases inaccessibles dans des conditions de températures similaires par traitement thermique conventionnel. De même, l’obtention de céramique moléculaire de très haute densité a pu être réalisée, malgré des températures de décomposition extrêmement faible (100 ˚C). / The present work focuses on the prospection and understanding study of ferroic materials. It consists in a multiple aspect approach, including materials chemistry, materials physics and materials processing. Two parts compose this work, with two different approaches. The first one focuses on the links between composition, structure and properties in materials belonging to the TTB family, more specifically derived from Ba2NdFeNb4O15, through the exploration of Li containing solid solutions, and the impact of synthesis parameters on measured dielectric anomalies on dense samples. The observation of structural modulation in these materials seems to be closely related to the observation of dielectric anomalies variations. Using electron diffraction techniques allowed the evidence of such anomalies and the following of their thermal evolution. In a second part, the approach consists in using Spark Plasma Sintering (SPS) as a densification technique for so called “fragile” materials but also explore dielectric properties impossible to experimentally measure thus far. Developing low temperature SPS technique not only allows to densify ceramics at low temperatures fragile materials, but also to obtain inaccessible phases in similar temperature conditions using conventional thermal treatments. Moreover, sintering of molecular ceramic at very high density was possible, even if its decomposition temperature is extremely low (100 ˚C).

Os Ormosils pertencem aos sistemas nanoestruturados, apresentando uma grande diversidade de estruturas e permitindo o controle das propriedades dos materiais obtidos. Os Ormosils contribuem ao desenvolvimento de materiais multifuncionais pela sua estrutura flexível (matriz hospedeira), que permite a oclusão de diversas espécies (moleculares, iônicas), a qual pode ser ajustada pela mudança dos grupos funcionais dos silanos precursores. Os filmes dos Ormosils têm potencial aplicação em fitas dosimétricas, janelas inteligentes, selos antifraude, dispositivos fotônicos, filmes fotocatalíticos e dispositivos fotocrômicos. Esta Tese abordou a determinação qualitativa, semiquantitativa e quantitativa dos filmes dos Ormosils (contendo nanopartículas de TiO2, ZnO e Fosfotungstatos ([PW12O40]3)) e aqueles constituídos por uma rede interpenetrante de sílica, sesquisiloxano e hidroxiuretana de poli(dimetilsiloxano) contendo Fosfotungstatos, com potencial aplicação em membranas para células combustíveis e na produção de janelas fotocrômicas. Outro dos materiais analisados constituíram Ormosils ocluídos na matriz de Poli(imidas), com potencial aplicação no armazenamento de Hidrogênio, membranas para células combustíveis e revestimentos isolantes e anticorrosivos.<br /><br /> A quantificação e mapeamento dos elementos fotoativos são relevantes para a melhoria no desenvolvimento destes materiais, entretanto, esta não é uma tarefa trivial devido à natureza intrínseca destes materiais híbridos em que a fase orgânica e a inorgânica estão intimamente ligadas e devido à presença de um grande número de elementos químicos que muitas vezes interferem na análise. Desta forma, estes materiais híbridos se constituem em matrizes complexas de análise e há necessidade de se desenvolver e estudar métodos analíticos específicos. A fim de melhor compreender as propriedades fotocrômicas, anticorrosivas e mecânicas destes materiais, é importante conhecer a distribuição dos silicatos e dos fosfotungstatos no interior dos filmes.<br /><br /> Os Estudos de Interferência da Autoabsorção da Fluorescência de Tungstênio pelos demais elementos nos filmes dos Ormosils, nos induziram a abordar a quantificação por XRF, não somente pelo ponto de vista atômico, senão complementar com a abordagem molecular. O Espalhamento Raman Ressonante de RaiosX mostrouse igualmente importante para entender os fenômenos de interferência observados nestes sistemas complexos. <br /><br /> Foi possível identificar e detectar o dopante Ti na faixa de dezenas de mg.Kg1 , mediante análises de Fluorescência de RaiosX em ângulo rasante (GIXRF) assistida por Radiação Síncrotron. De maneira complementar, análises de Microfluorescência de RaiosX (&micro;XRF) assistida por Radiação Síncrotron possibilitaram conhecer a distribuição espacial do Titânio e Zinco nos Ormosils. Nestas análises XRF não se empregaram materiais certificados para validação, contudo fora preparados no nosso laboratório materiais de referência, com procedimento de preparo similar àquele das amostras usando o método de semiquantificação baseado em Parâmetros Fundamentais. Os resultados de Fluorescência de RaiosX foram validados pelos resultados das análises por ICPOES e Ativação por Nêutrons (INAA). Os diferentes métodos de análise empregados (&micro;XRF, GIXRF, EDXRF, ICPOES, AAS) foram efetivos em precisão e em exatidão na quantificação de Tungstênio e Zinco. Entretanto para o caso de Titânio, somente puderam se considerar os resultados de &micro;XRF e ICPOES. Portanto, serão necessários métodos analíticos adicionais para validar os resultados da concentração deste elemento nos Ormosils. ICPOES e INAA demonstraram serem métodos de referência para os resultados XRF (Laboratório, Radiação Síncrotron) nossos materiais.<br /><br /><br /><br /> / Organically modified silicates or Ormosil are nanostructured systems displaying a wide range of structures, which facilitates the control of properties of materials obtained from them. Ormosil contribute to the development of multifunctional materials because of their flexible structure (matrix host), which allow the occlusion of various species (ionic, molecular), can be adjusted by changing functional groups of precursor silanes. Ormosil films have potential for application to dosimetric tapes, smart windows, antifraud sealing, photonic devices, photocatalytic films, and photochromic devices. In this thesis was investigated qualitative, semiquantitative and quantitative determination of ormosil films (containing TiO2 nanoparticles, ZnO, and phosphotungstates ([PW12O40]3))and those composed of an interpenetrating network of silica, sesquisiloxane, and polydimethylsiloxane hydroxyurethane containing phosphotungstate for use in fuel cell membranes, and production of photochromic windows. It also investigated Ormosil containing phosphotungstate occluded in a polyimide matrix with potential application to hydrogen storage, fuel cell membranes, and insulating and anticorrosion coatings.<br /><br /> Quantification and mapping of photoactive elements are important to promote the development of these materials. However, these are not trivial tasks due to the intrinsic nature of these hybrid materials in which organic and inorganic phases are closely linked and the presence of a large number of chemicals elements interferes with the analysis. Since these hybrid materials constitute complex matrices to analyze, it is necessary to develop and examine specific analytical methods. In order to better understand the photochromic, anticorrosive, and mechanical properties of these materials, it is important to identify the distribution of silicates and phosphotungstates inside the films.<br /><br /> Selfabsorption interference studies of Tungsten XRay fluorescence by the others constituents in the Ormosil films led us to approach quantification by XRF, not only from the atomic perspective, but also to supplement with the molecular approach. XRay Resonant Raman Scattering (XRS) was equally important to explain interference phenomena observed in these complex systems. <br /><br /> It was possible to identify and detect Ti dopant in the range of tens of mg.Kg1 by means of Grazing Incidence XRay Fluorescence (GIXRF) analysis assisted by Synchrotron Radiation. In addition, Microscopic Xray Fluorescence analysis (&micro;XRF) assisted by Synchrotron Radiation enabled the identification of spatial distributions of Titanium and Zinc within ormosils. Since these XRF analyses did not employ certified materials for validation, standards were prepared at our laboratory following a similar protocol to that used to prepare the samples. The semiquantification method based on fundamental parameters was also used, which demonstrated be very useful and efficient. Xray fluorescence results were validated by those obtained from Inductively Coupled Plasma Optical Emission Spectrometry (ICPOES) and Instrumental Neutron Activation Analysis (INAA). The different methods of analysis employed (&micro;XRF, GIXRF, EDXRF, ICPOES, AAS) were effective regarding precision and accuracy in Tungsten and Zinc quantification. In the case of Titanium, however, only &micro;XRF and ICPOES results could be taken into account. Therefore, there is the need for additional analytical methods to validate concentration results for this element in ormosils. ICPOES and INAA proved to be reference methods for results obtained through XRF (Laboratory and assisted by Synchrotron Radiation) for our materials.

Este trabalho teve como objetivo investigar eletrocatalisadores de baixo custo à base de carbeto de tungstênio, carbono e ferro submetidos a diferentes processos de nitretação quanto à atividade catalítica para reação de redução do oxigênio (RRO) nos eletrólitos ácido e alcalino. Os catalisadores foram divididos em três séries distintas, a primeira compreendendo aqueles onde houve variação da carga de carbeto de tungstênio em relação ao suporte de carbono, que foram impregnados com o complexo Fe2+(2,4,6-Tris(2-piridil)-1,3,5-Triazina)2, [Fe(TPTZ)2]2+ e tratados em duas temperaturas diferentes, 700 e 800 oC em atmosfera de nitrogênio. Na segunda série foi mantida constante a carga de carbeto de tungstênio (30% de W/C, m/m) sendo que esta mescla foi preparada usando carbonos dopados previamente com três fontes distintas de nitrogênio (HNO3, NH3 e HNO3/NH3); isto foi seguido pela incorporação do complexo Fe[TPTZ]2+ e pelos mesmos tratamentos térmicos acima mencionados. Na terceira série, os eletrocatalisadores foram preparados com três tipos de carbonos (Vulcan, Ketjenblack e Monarch), aos quais foi incorporado o complexo Fe[TPTZ]2+, seguido pelo tratamento térmico a 800 °C em atmosfera de nitrogênio e então por dopagem com amônia a 950 °C. As três séries de eletrocatalisadores sintetizados neste trabalho foram cuidadosamente caracterizadas por espectroscopia infra-vermelho e UV-Visível, difratometria de raio-x, microscopia eletrônica de transmissão, energia dispersiva de raios-x, espectroscipia Raman, espectroscopia fotoeletrônica de raios-x. As investigações eletroquímicas foram realizadas por voltametria cíclica (VC) e pelo levantamento de curvas de polarização de estado estacionário para a RRO, usando a técnica de eletrodo de disco/anel rotatório, com materiais catalíticos formando filmes finos depositados no eletrodo de disco. Nas três séries de catalisadores foram desenvolvidos materiais com bom desempenho para a RRO. Nos estudos da primeira série de catalisadores, notou-se que o material mais ativo foi aquele formado por WC-FeNx/C com 30 % de W/C e 5% de Fe pirolisado a 800 °C. Na segunda série foi observado que os desempenhos dos catalisadores variaram de acordo com o tipo de protocolo de nitretação, presença de ferro e temperatura de tratamento térmico. Em eletrólito alcalino, os eletrocatalisadores apresentaram maiores desempenhos, que resultaram bastante próximos em relação ao do catalisador de Pt dispersa em carbono usado como referência. Na terceira série de eletrocatalisadores investigados, verificou-se que o melhor desempenho obtido foi com o catalisador com carbono Monarch com amônia, cuja atividade catalítica resultou superior à dos demais, devido ao maior número de estruturas ativas FeNx e N/C formadas pelo tratamento com amônia. Os resultados nos meios ácido e alcalino para a primeira e segunda séries de eletrocatalisadores sugerem a ocorrência de um mecanismo indireto (2e- + 2e-), ou seja, em meio ácido (alcalino) primeiro o O2 reduz para H2O2 (HO2 ) e depois de H2O2 (HO2 ) para H2O. Os sítios predominantemente envolvidos na catálise da reação são WC e FeNx em meio ácido e WC e N/C em meio alcalino. Finalmente, para a terceira série de eletrocatalisadores o mecanismo reacional em meio ácido envolve um mecanismo direto de 4e-, com participação importante dos sítios ativos de Fe-N2. / This work aims to investigate low cost electrocatalysts based on tungsten carbide, carbon and iron submitted to different nitriding processes for the catalytic activity for the oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) in acid and alkaline electrolytes. The catalysts were divided into three distinct series, the first one comprising those with different tungsten carbide loads with respect to the carbon support, which were impregnated with the Fe2+ (2,4,6-Tris (2-pyridyl) - 1,3,5-triazine)2, [Fe (TPTZ)]2+, complex and treated at two different temperatures, 700 and 800 oC in nitrogen atmosphere. In the second series, the tungsten carbide load (30% W/C, m/m) was kept constant but this mixture was prepared using previously doped carbons using three different sources of nitrogen (HNO3, NH3 and HNO3/NH3); this was followed by the incorporation of the Fe[TPTZ]2+ complex and by the same heat treatments as mentioned above. In the third series, the electrocatalysts were prepared with three carbon types (Vulcan, Ketjenblack and Monarch), to which the Fe[TPTZ]2+ complex was added, followed by heat treatment at 800 °C under nitrogen and then by nitriding using a flow of ammonia at 950 °C. The three series of electrocatalysts synthesized in this work were carefully characterized by infra-red and UV-Visible spectroscopy, x-ray diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, x-ray energy dispersive, Raman spectroscopy, x-ray photoelectron spectroscopy. The electrochemical investigations were performed by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and by measurements of steady-state polarization curves for ORR using rotating ring-disc electrode technique, with catalytic materials forming thin films deposited on the disc. In the three catalyst series, materials with good performance for the ORR were developed. In the studies of the first series of catalysts, it was seen that the most active material was that formed by WC-FeNx/C with 30%W/C and 5% Fe pyrolyzed at 800 ° C. In the second series it was observed that the performances of the catalysts varied according to the type of nitriding protocol, presence of iron and temperature of heat treatment. The electrocatalysts showed higher performances in alkaline electrolyte, which were very close to that of a reference Pt/C catalyst. In the third series of electrocatalysts, the best performance was obtained with the Monarch carbon catalyst heat-treated with ammonia, whose catalytic activity was higher than all others, due to the greater number of FeNx and N/C active structures formed by the treatment with ammonia. The results in acidic and alkaline conditions for the first and second series of electrocatalysts suggest the occurrence of an indirect ORR mechanism (2e- + 2e-), that is, in acid (alkaline) media first O2 is reduced to H2O2 (HO2) followed by the reduction of H2O2 (HO2). The active sites predominantly involved in the reaction electrocatalysis are WC and FeNx in acid media and WC e N/C in alcaline media. Finally, for the third series of electrocatalysts, the acidic reaction involves a direct 4e- mechanism, having important participation of the Fe-N2 active sites.

A determinação direta de arsênio total em águas por espectrometria de absorção atômica com filamentos de tungstênio (150 W) modificados quimicamente com irídio ou ródio, representa uma alternativa para a atomização eletrotérmica de arsênio, que foi avaliada na presente dissertação. A utilização do revestimento com Ir como modificador químico proporcionou um aumento da massa característica de arsênio de 3,5 vezes. As medidas foram feitas com altura de observação selecionada para proporcionar a melhor razão sinal/ruído sem diminuir a sensibilidade do sinal analítico. Avaliaram-se dois programas de aquecimento: com temperatura de secagem constante (com diminuição gradativa da tensão aplicada) e com temperatura de secagem variável (com tensão aplicada de maneira constante). Não houve diferença na sensibilidade entre os dois programas estudados, indicando que a modificação química leva à formação de um precursor atômico com estabilidade térmica elevada. De fato, utilizando-se a modificação química permanente com 1000 müg Ir, e adotando-se programa de aquecimento com temperatura de secagem variável, a temperatura máxima de pirólise foi de aproximadamente 1700 °C ( temperatura de atomização de 2700 °C). Avaliou-se o comportamento eletrotérmico do As na presença dos concomitantes Na, K, Ca e Mg em 0,1% v/v HNO3. Interferências mais severas foram observadas na presença de cálcio acima de 10 \'mü\'g l-1, e acima de 100 \'mü\'g l-1 para os demais concomitantes. As interferências podem estar relacionadas com o elevado gradiente de temperatura entre a superfície do filamento e a fase gasosa do volume de observação, ou mesmo devido à formação de compostos refratários, particularmente para Ca e Mg, na fase condensada, ou seja, na superfície do atomizador. O emprego do método das médias móveis no tratamento dos sinais transientes gerados na atomização do arsênio também foi avaliada. Com o filamento posicionado na altura de observação 2 mm, foram utilizados os fatores 0, 3, 5, 7 e 9, observando-se melhora considerável nos limites de detecção instrumental e do método,utilizando-se média móvel com fator 7. Nestas condições, e depositando-se 20 \'mü\'l de amostra sobre o filamento, o limite de detecção foi de 3,2 \'mü\'g l-1 As e a massa característica de 37,0 pg As. A exatidão foi avaliada analisando-se diferentes amostras de águas provenientes da região do Quadrilátero Ferrífero do Estado de Minas Gerais, por espectrometria de fluorescência atômica com geração de hidretos e por espectrometria de absorção atômica com o filamento de tungstênio modificado com Ir. A comparação dos resultados mostrou que o método proposto pode ser utilizado para o controle de qualidade de águas desta região. Aproximadamente 150 queimas podem ser feitas com um único filamento de tungstênio / The direct determination of arsenic in waters by atomic absorption spectrometry with 150 W tungsten coils, treated with Ir or Rh, was evaluated as a possible alternative for the eletrothermal atomization of As. The use of iridium as a permanent chemical modifier did improve the characteristic mass of arsenic by 3.5 fold. Measurements were made by choosing an appropriate observation height in order to get the best signal to noise ratio. Two heating programs were tested, either by keeping the applied voltage constant or by using an inverted voltage ramp during the drying step. There were no significant differences in the sensitivities between both heating programs, indicating that the permanent modification lead to the formation of an atomic precursor of high thermal stability. Indeed, with the permanent chemical modification with 1000 \'mü\'g Ir, the maximum pyrolysis temperature was approximately 1700 °C (atomization temperature 2700 °C), allowing a heating program with temperature variation during the drying step. Method selectivity was carried out by evaluating the eletrothermal behavior of As in the presence of up to 1000 \'mü\'g l-1 Na, K, Ca and/or Mg in 0,1% v/v HNO3. The most serious interferences were observed with Ca in concentrations higher than 10 \'mü\'g l-1 and when the concentrations were higher than 100 \'mü\'g l-1 for Na, K or Mg, which can be attributed either to the gradient of temperature between the surface of the atomizer and the observation volume or to the formation of refractory compounds in the condensed phase, particularly with Ca and Mg. The absorbance transient signals treatment by the method of moving averages up to factor 9 was also evaluated, with a remarkable improvement in the instrumental and method detection limits. With the center of the observation volume 2 mm above the tungsten coil surface, and a moving average of factor 7, the limit of detection was 3,2 \'müg\' l-1 As and the characteristic mass 37,0 pg As. Accuracy was evaluate by analysing water samples collected in a contaminated area from the Quadrilátero Ferrífero, Minas Gerais State, by hydride generation atomic fluorescence spectrometry and by tungsten coil eletrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. Results showed that the proposed method fits for the purpose of CONAMA 357 regulation for drinking water quality in the aforementioned contaminated area. Approximately 150 firings can be done with a single tungsten coil atomizer by using 20 \'mü\'l sample volume

Um método de baixo custo é proposto para determinação direta de chumbo em açúcar por espectrometria de absorção atômica com forno de grafite e correção de fundo com fonte de deutério, empregando modificação química permanente com 250µg W + 200µg Rh e co-injeção de 5µg Rh. Os experimentos foram realizados com plataforma integrada ou ao no tubo de grafite com aquecimento longitudinal. Para avaliação da modificação química permanente, foram feitos experimentos na ausência de modificação e na presença de modificação química convencional com Pd+Mg. No decorrer do trabalho observou-se ser imprescindível a co-injeção de Rh para a estabilização térmica de chumbo na presença de açúcar. A amostra (8 g) é dissolvida em 100 ml de solução aquosa 0,2% v/v HNO3, e uma alíquota de 10 l é injetada com 5µl de solução de Rh na plataforma do tubo de grafite modelo Universal da Varian tratada com W e Rh. A massa característica (mo) e o limite de detecção do método foram 11 pg Pb e 5 ng g-1 respectivamente, e a vida útil do tubo de grafite foi de 860 queimas. O método apresentou boa reprodutibilidade com coeficiente de variação inferior a 2,5 % (n=3). As características analíticas foram comparadas com os métodos recomendados na literatura. A exatidão do método proposto para determinação direta de chumbo em açúcar foi avaliada pela comparação com método convencional utilizando Pd+Mg e nenhuma diferença estatística foi observada aplicando-se o teste t de Student ao nível de 95% de probabilidade, em amostras que receberam adição de chumbo / A simple method for the direct determination of lead in sugar by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS) with platform treated with 250µg W + 200µg Rh and deuterium background correction is proposed. Samples (8 g) were dissolved in 100 ml of an aqueous solution containing 0,2% v/v HNO3 and 10µl aliquots were co-injected with 5µg Rh into the integrated platform modified with W-Rh of the Universal Varian longitudinal heated graphite atomizer. The characteristic mass (mo) and the method detection limit were 11 pg Pb and 5,0 ng g-1 Pb, respectively, and the tube life time was 860 firings. The relative standard deviation of measurements (n=3) was lower than 2,5 %. For the evaluation of the permanent chemical modifier, parallel experiments were carried in the presence of diluted nitric acid and with the conventional Pd+Mg chemical modifier. Experiments were made either with manual inserted graphite plataforms or integrated plataforms into longitudinal graphite tubes. Comparison of the proposed method with a method based on Pd+Mg chemical modifier showed no statistical differences by applying a t-test at 95% confidence level, for sugar sample solution spiked with lead