Att arbeta i projekt är en allt vanligare arbetsform som tillskrivs vara mer effektiv än den traditionella. Trots detta har projektorganisationer svårt att dra lärdomar av tidigare misstag, därför riskeras de att återupprepas i andra projekt. Det finns påtagliga brister i inhämtningen av kunskap från tidigare projekt, men också i lagrandet av dessa erfarenheter. Utvärdering är ett verktyg som syftar till att reflektera och samla in erfarenheter och kunskaper som genererats i ett projekt. Det är också en förutsättning för att de ska kunna vidareförmedlas. Syftet med studien är därför att ta reda på hur en projektorganisation använder sig av utvärdering för lärande mellan projekt. För att genomföra detta kontaktades en multinationell projektorganisation som hädanefter kallas CS. Vi genomförde en fallstudie där både intervjuer med projektledare och utvärderingsmaterial inhämtades. Det empiriska materialet analyserades och jämfördes med den teoretiska referensramen vilket resulterade i två modeller. Den första modellen beskriver det inter-projektuella lärandet som ligger till grund för kunskapsutbytet mellan projekt. Den andra modellen visar mer ingående utvärderingens kritiska punkter från ett projekt till ett annat. Studien stärker att utvärdering och lärande mellan projekt är ett eftersatt område i projektorganisationer. De uppfattas ofta som tråkiga, ostrukturerade och som att de saknar mottagare. Även andra kritiska punkter i processen som är vitala för att kunskap ska spridas mellan projekt har uppmärksammats. De är att ledningen stöttar genomförandet och inhämtandet av tidigare utvärderingsmaterial, att databasen är användarvänlig och att nätverk aktivt används. En reflekterande utvärdering bidrar till utökad individuell kunskap, men även utförligare dokument som kan lagras i organisationen. Detta är något som långsiktigt leder till kunskapsutveckling för organisationer. Studien visar också att kunskapsspridningen mellan parallellt pågående projekt varken prioriteras i forskning eller inom organisationer. Det finns däremot stor utvecklingspotential inom detta område. / Program: Civilekonomprogrammet

Democracy has been encountering an increasing number of critics. Whether it comes from a sympathy for autocrats, free-markets, or the more knowledgeable, this increasing democratic scepticism often takes an epistemic form. Democracy's critics argue that democratic procedures and institutions are unlikely to make good decisions or produce good outcomes in terms of justice or the common good, and should, therefore, be restricted if not completely rejected in favour of its more able alternatives. In the face of such scepticism, this thesis develops an epistemic theory of deliberative democracy. This theory has two principal aims. The first is to analyse and define the epistemic properties of deliberative democracy, and the second is to clarify the possible role epistemic values can play in a wider justification of democratic rule. In accordance with the first, the thesis analyses the ability of deliberative democratic institutions to make good or correct decisions in comparison to a broad range of prominent alternatives. These include traditional rivals such as autocracy and aristocracy, but also more modern and less considered alternatives such as free-markets, limited epistocracy and forms of technical calculation. Through these comparisons, it is argued that we have no good or clear epistemic reason to reject democracy. Deliberative democracy is found to be epistemically superior to many of its alternatives and epistemically equivalent to even its best competitors. The thesis, therefore, mounts a strong reply to democracy's epistemic sceptics. The analysis, however, also helps clarify which form of deliberative democracy is epistemically most valuable, pointing to the value systems approaches which give a prominent role to direct citizen deliberation. The epistemic theory of deliberative democracy also aims to clarify what role epistemic values can play in a wider justification of democratic rule. The thesis argues that deliberative democracy is epistemically superior to many of its rivals and no worse epistemically than even its best alternatives. This suggests that although epistemic values cannot mount a stand-alone defence of democracy, democrats would only be required to defend very weak non-epistemic values to produce a mixed justification. Far from being 'rule by the incompetent many' and therefore highly reliant on procedural values, the thesis will demonstrate that epistemic values can carry significant weight in an argument for democratic rule.

Essa pesquisa buscou compreender o papel que os trabalhadores de chão de fábrica, aqueles com pouca ou nenhuma qualificação e que trabalham diretamente no processo produtivo, tiveram para o progresso da indústria química de São Paulo. Para isso, realizamos uma retrospectiva da história da industrialização desse setor, bem como dos diferentes estágios de interação entre a gerência e os operários. Contamos com pesquisas de diferentes áreas do conhecimento, bem como de documentação primária e história oral. Com isso, buscamos dar luz a essa personagem e perceber como o seu papel se alterou no decorrer do tempo, sem nunca deixar de ser relevante para uma História da ciência, da técnica e do trabalho, inserida em uma perspectiva social. / The main purpose of this research is to understand the role that blue collar workers, those ones with little or no qualifications that work directly in the production process, had in the progress of the chemical industry of São Paulo. To get there, a retrospective of the history of industrialization in this sector has been done, as well as the different stages of interaction between management executives and workers. In the research, studies from different areas of knowledge were used as well as primary documents and oral history. This research tries to focus these actors and understands the changes on their role over the time, always relevant to the history of science, technology and labor in a social perspective.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-15T19:26:20Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Andre Eduardo Miranda dos Santos.pdf: 1807322 bytes, checksum: 7f50ddc0b91b7f1ac5122ffcdf2d22d5 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2006-05-31 / Great attention has been dedicated to knowledge administration thematic in the last years. Articles and books have been published and companies have been increasing the investments in that study field, that presents multidisciplinary relationship with other themes, such as information, human resources administration and organizational behavior systems. Inserted in an environment of competition and competitiveness, great companies coexist with the constant variation of the demand for their products, turning essential the existence of a daily activity foreseeing future situations, in order to maximize the outcome and to provide value to the business. Such an activity is situated in a field of study which goes by the area of marketing and production planning. In this sense, the objective of this study was to list the knowledge management, under a Processual perspective, in the demand planning activity, in an exploratory nature research carried out in five different companies, pertaining companies to five different sectors, characterized as a multi-case case study. The evidences were acquired by means of interviews, observation and document analysis, where content analysis was employed for analyzing and interpreting data. The outcome revealed the presence of elements having explicit, tacit and cultural knowledge in the demand planning activity: information technology tools the and documents, experience of professionals, means for transferring knowledge, collective interaction, social relationships and corporative vision what directs the business. In addition, the creation, transfer, storage and knowledge use processes were also considered as an outcome of the research, standing out the different formal meetings scheduled for knowledge exchange and the "knowledge combination" element, characterized by the interaction among the people during the process of knowledge creation and proposed in the Socialization, Externalization, Combination and Internalization process. / Grande atenção tem sido dada à temática gestão do conhecimento nos últimos anos. Artigos e livros têm sido publicados e empresas têm aumentado os investimentos nesse campo de estudo, que apresenta multidisciplinariedade com outros temas, como sistemas de informação, gestão de recursos humanos e comportamento organizacional. Inseridas em um ambiente de concorrência e competitividade, grandes empresas convivem com a constante variação da demanda de seus produtos, o que torna essencial a existência de uma atividade diária de previsão de situações futuras, a fim de se maximizar os resultados e de se fornecer valor ao negócio. Tal atividade se situa em um campo de estudo que passa pela área de marketing e planejamento de produção. Nesse sentido, o objetivo do presente estudo foi relacionar a gestão do conhecimento, sob uma perspectiva processual, na atividade de planejamento de demanda, em uma pesquisa de caráter exploratório realizada em cinco empresas diferentes, pertencentes a cinco setores diferentes, caracterizada como um estudo de multicasos. As evidências foram perquiridas por meio de entrevistas, observação e análise de documento, sendo que, para análise e interpretação dos dados, foi empregada a análise de conteúdo. Os resultados revelaram a presença de elementos de conhecimento explícito, tácito e cultural na atividade de planejamento de demanda: ferramentas de tecnologia da informação e documentos, experiência dos profissionais, meios de transferência do conhecimento, interação coletiva, relações sociais e visão corporativa que direciona o negócio empresa. Além disso, os processos de criação, transferência, armazenamento e de uso do conhecimento também foram considerados no resultado da pesquisa, destacando-se os diferentes encontros formais agendados para a troca de conhecimento e o elemento de "combinação do conhecimento , caracterizado pela interação entre as pessoas durante a criação do conhecimento e proposto no processo de Socialização, Externalização, Combinação e Internalização.

Knowledge management is seen as a hot topic in order for organizations to become effective and utilize the knowledge residing within the organization. The most important factor in knowledge management is believed to be the knowledge transfer, which is the process of transferring knowledge between two parties. A context in which knowledge and knowledge transfer are especially important is within the best practice framework ‘ITIL’ and IT-service organizations. Therefore, the purpose with this study is to analyze how knowledge is transferred through information systems in an ITIL organization, and how the transfer process can be further understood by incorporating individual perspectives on knowledge. Besides that, our purpose is to identify factors influencing the knowledge transfer from both the organizations and the ITIL framework. The reason for this is that knowledge transfer through information systems in an ITIL context is rather underexplored, previous research regarding this is mainly focusing on putting knowledge in repositories and make it available, which is believed to create certain implications regarding the individual perspective in the creation and transfer of knowledge through information systems. These implications are something that has not been explored, which is a knowledge gap we intend to fill with this thesis. That is why we have constructed three research questions regarding how the organizations understand what valuable knowledge is, what factors that is influencing their knowledge transfer, and how these previously individual aspects can be further understood by applying the boundary object theory on knowledge transfer through information systems. From a multi case study with semi structured interviews we could collect a valuable collection of empirical data, that was collected from six respondents representing three organizations. By applying the interpretive and social constructivist research philosophy with an abductive methodological approach, previous research and the boundary object theory in combination with the theory of knowledge creation we could analyze our empirical data. Our study shows that the perspective on valuable knowledge is something with direct relation to ITIL, and highly connected to what its contribution is to the core business that the IT-service organization is helping. Valuable knowledge is also seen as stored knowledge. We can from our study also see that there are four predominant forces influencing the knowledge transfer process. We identified that the overall perspective on what knowledge is in the organization, how and what the organization values as knowledge, the ITIL framework and their knowledge management strategy directly influenced knowledge transfer. Our main finding in this study is that when organizations are transferring knowledge through information systems the individual perspective on both knowledge, knowledge creation and the knowledge transfer is one of the most important to keep in mind. The knowledge in the information systems is a way to communicate among individuals, and a way to translate one individual’s knowledge to another, hence is the individual creating the knowledge an important factor to acknowledge. We can see that aspects such as experiences, skills, insights, purposes, perspectives and contextual understandings highly influence the knowledge being created, hence the possibility to create rich knowledge at the receiver of knowledge. These aspects also influence whether the stored knowledge has any tacit elements, which seems to facilitate learning more for the receiving individual.

<p><strong>Syfte:</strong> Syftet med studien är att ge rekommendationer till organisationen Riksförbundet Sveriges Unga Katoliker (SUK) om hur de kan bevara kontinuiteten inom förbundet. Rekommendationerna tillkommer genom analys av hur SUK kan ta vara på den tysta kunskapen som finns hos deras anställda och frivilliga medarbetare, samt vilka faktorer som motiverar till ett frivilligt ledarskap.</p><p><strong>Metod: </strong>Fallstudien har en kvalitativ ansats med inslag av kvantitativa antydningar. Två intervjuer har genomförts med anställda på SUK, samt en via e-post med ytterligare en anställd. En mindre enkätundersökning har genomförts bland ideella ledare inom Stockholmregionen i SUK.</p><p><strong>Teori:</strong> Detta kapitel börjar med en överblick över definitioner av tyst kunskap och därefter följer tvåfaktorsteorin som är en motivationsteori. Detta avsnitt redovisar teorier från Polanyi, Nonaka, samt Herzberg.</p><p><strong>Empiri: </strong>I detta avsnitt presenteras den data som samlats in genom SUK:s hemsida, intervjuer, samt den mindre enkätundersökningen.</p><p><strong>Analys: </strong>Under denna del analyserar vi det material som samlats in under empiri avsnittet med hjälp av de teorier som presenterats i teoriavsnittet. Data från intervjuerna ställs mot teori om tyst kunskap och enkätundersökningens resultat analyseras med hjälp av Herzbergs tvåfaktorsteori.</p><p><strong>Slutsats:</strong> De viktigaste slutsatserna är att SUK bör bevara organisationens tysta kunskap genom att ta fram ett symboliskt organisationsspråk i form av lathundar och mallar. Kommunikationen inom organisationen måste förbättras, och SUK bör införa en praktisk del i ledarutbildningen, som också kan fungera som en överföring av tyst kunskap. Fortsatt slutsats är att motivationsfaktorerna avancemang och prestation är viktigast både enligt SUK:s frivilliga arbetare och anställda. SUK bör ta hänsyn både till motivationsfaktorer och hygienfaktorer, då båda är viktiga för att skapa kontinuitet.</p> / <p><strong>Purpose:</strong>  The purpose of the essay is give the association Sweden's Young Catholics recommendations how to maintain the contingency within the organization. The recommendations arises through analysis about how Sweden's Young Catholics can preserve the tacit knowledge that the employees and volunteers have, and which factors motivates to volunteer leadership.</p><p><strong>Methology:  </strong>For this case study we have used a qualitative method with a touch of a quantitative method. We did two interviews with employees and one through e-mail with another employee. We also did a minor poll with volunteers in the Stockholm region in Sweden's Young Catholics.</p><p><strong>Theoretical </strong><strong>perspective:</strong>  This chapter starts with an overview over different definitions of tacit knowledge and there after a theory about motivation. This chapter illustrates theorys by Polanyi, Nonaka, and Herzberg.</p><p><strong>Empiric: </strong>This chapter declares material and interviews made for this thesis. Material about the organization from the website for Sweden's Young Catholics, the interviews about tacit knowledge and the poll about motivation.</p><p><strong>Analysis:</strong> In this section we analyse all the material and interviews collected in the empiric section with help of the theories from the theoretical chapter. The interviews with the tacit knowledge and the poll with help of Herzberg's theory.</p><p><strong>Conclusion:</strong>  The most important conclusion is that Sweden's Young Catholics should keep their tacit knowledge by developing a symbolic organizational language in shape of reference guides. The communication in the organization also has to improve and Sweden's Young Catholics should have a practical part in their leadership course which also can serve as a transfer of tacit knowledge. Other conclusions are that the most important motivation factors is promotion and performance according to both employees and volunteers. Although Sweden's Young Catholics should take both motivation factors and hygiene factors in their consideration, because they are both important for keeping the contingency in the organization.</p>

Syfte: Syftet med studien är att ge rekommendationer till organisationen Riksförbundet Sveriges Unga Katoliker (SUK) om hur de kan bevara kontinuiteten inom förbundet. Rekommendationerna tillkommer genom analys av hur SUK kan ta vara på den tysta kunskapen som finns hos deras anställda och frivilliga medarbetare, samt vilka faktorer som motiverar till ett frivilligt ledarskap. Metod: Fallstudien har en kvalitativ ansats med inslag av kvantitativa antydningar. Två intervjuer har genomförts med anställda på SUK, samt en via e-post med ytterligare en anställd. En mindre enkätundersökning har genomförts bland ideella ledare inom Stockholmregionen i SUK. Teori: Detta kapitel börjar med en överblick över definitioner av tyst kunskap och därefter följer tvåfaktorsteorin som är en motivationsteori. Detta avsnitt redovisar teorier från Polanyi, Nonaka, samt Herzberg. Empiri: I detta avsnitt presenteras den data som samlats in genom SUK:s hemsida, intervjuer, samt den mindre enkätundersökningen. Analys: Under denna del analyserar vi det material som samlats in under empiri avsnittet med hjälp av de teorier som presenterats i teoriavsnittet. Data från intervjuerna ställs mot teori om tyst kunskap och enkätundersökningens resultat analyseras med hjälp av Herzbergs tvåfaktorsteori. Slutsats: De viktigaste slutsatserna är att SUK bör bevara organisationens tysta kunskap genom att ta fram ett symboliskt organisationsspråk i form av lathundar och mallar. Kommunikationen inom organisationen måste förbättras, och SUK bör införa en praktisk del i ledarutbildningen, som också kan fungera som en överföring av tyst kunskap. Fortsatt slutsats är att motivationsfaktorerna avancemang och prestation är viktigast både enligt SUK:s frivilliga arbetare och anställda. SUK bör ta hänsyn både till motivationsfaktorer och hygienfaktorer, då båda är viktiga för att skapa kontinuitet. / Purpose:  The purpose of the essay is give the association Sweden's Young Catholics recommendations how to maintain the contingency within the organization. The recommendations arises through analysis about how Sweden's Young Catholics can preserve the tacit knowledge that the employees and volunteers have, and which factors motivates to volunteer leadership. Methology:  For this case study we have used a qualitative method with a touch of a quantitative method. We did two interviews with employees and one through e-mail with another employee. We also did a minor poll with volunteers in the Stockholm region in Sweden's Young Catholics. Theoretical perspective:  This chapter starts with an overview over different definitions of tacit knowledge and there after a theory about motivation. This chapter illustrates theorys by Polanyi, Nonaka, and Herzberg. Empiric: This chapter declares material and interviews made for this thesis. Material about the organization from the website for Sweden's Young Catholics, the interviews about tacit knowledge and the poll about motivation. Analysis: In this section we analyse all the material and interviews collected in the empiric section with help of the theories from the theoretical chapter. The interviews with the tacit knowledge and the poll with help of Herzberg's theory. Conclusion:  The most important conclusion is that Sweden's Young Catholics should keep their tacit knowledge by developing a symbolic organizational language in shape of reference guides. The communication in the organization also has to improve and Sweden's Young Catholics should have a practical part in their leadership course which also can serve as a transfer of tacit knowledge. Other conclusions are that the most important motivation factors is promotion and performance according to both employees and volunteers. Although Sweden's Young Catholics should take both motivation factors and hygiene factors in their consideration, because they are both important for keeping the contingency in the organization.

Numerous factors are likely to influence response patterns to situational judgment tests, including agreeableness, leadership style, impression management, and job and organizational experience. This research presents background information and research on situational judgment tests and several constructs hypothesized to influence situational judgment test responses. A situational judgment test and manipulations to influence response patterns were developed and piloted with a small sample of management professionals and undergraduate students. Larger samples of management professionals and undergraduate students participated in the experimental research. Participants were asked to imagine that they are applying for a job. Each participant was presented with background information about a fictitious company, describing a company as either highly Participative/Supportive or highly Directive/Achieving in its leadership culture. A third description provided no information about leadership culture to serve as a control. Participants responded to a situational judgment test consisting of some commercially developed items and some new items. Then participants responded to an inventory comprised of items that measure the factors hypothesized to influence response patterns, specifically Agreeableness and Experience. Significant differences in response patterns were determined to be attributable to the Agreeableness and Experience variables, and the Leadership Culture manipulations, as well as the interaction between Experience and the Leadership Culture manipulations. No significant differences were clearly attributable to the Agreeableness by Leadership Culture interaction. The ramifications of these findings are discussed and recommendations for future research are presented.

No description available.

What do executives do, and how do their actions impact on the company’s results? Questions such as these are constantly targeted in leadership research. Despite thousands of reports in the field, there is no consensus on what the concept of leadership entails. Nor can companies and organisations be said to have a clear idea of what executives actually do. Nevertheless, the investments in leadership development seem to indicate that executives are considered vital to the company’s results. The vague notions about what executive work entails, together with assumptions concerning their importance to the company or organisation, lend a certain magical aura to their work. In this study, executives are regarded as a professional category, and are consequently examined with a qualitative method whereby the professionals begin by reflecting in writing on their skills, and then take part in a group discussion on their skills based on their written reflections. This method, known as the dialogue seminar method, has been used on other professional categories with good results. Since executives have not previously been studied in terms of their skills, the results have been compared to leadership research. Leadership studies with a gender perspective have shown that gender impacts on the likelihood of obtaining and practising executive positions and skills. Therefore, the results of this study have also been analysed from a gender perspective. The skills of executives and other staff are described as the capacity to follow rules, i.e. interpreting rules and then applying them in concrete situations. A rule says nothing about how it should be followed, however. If the way in which a rule should be followed were to be described in a rule, another rule would be needed to describe how that rule should be followed, and so on, ad infinitum. Thus, rules must be interpreted as something that requires access to an “archive” of examples. One specific executive skill consists of developing co-workers’ rule-following skills. For executives, following the rules involves making decisions based on tacit knowledge. Tacit knowledge, in turn, is based on an inner vision of what is taking place right now in the organisation, and what is crucial to customers, employees, the organisation and the world at large. It also includes understanding people’s urges, thoughts, needs, wishes, and what they are saying. Tacit knowledge develops in the interplay between reflecting over examples and taking strategic action. Decision-making situations can often be unclear and contradictory. Therefore the executive’s skills must include the ability to handle uncertainty in three different ways. The first is by being honest about the fact that all decisions cannot be made, and that some decisions take time. The second is explaining to employees that an organisation cannot be entirely regulated by guidelines, and that judgement in the form of reflected experience is therefore a crucial element in all action. The third is coping with the fact that an executive position does not automatically entail being able to make the right decision. Thus, the executive must accommodate uncertainty in the world at large, the employees’ uncertainty, and his or her own uncertainty. Empirical analysis also highlights another aspect of executive skills. Executives need to be fast, not merely in the sense of having a high work capacity, but in the sense of never saying no or questioning deliveries. Above all, comparisons with leadership research reveal differences in the interpretation of empirical data. The way in which executives follow rules, for instance, is also described in research on leadership, but only as a phenomenon linked with unusual situations, as when executives need to take emergency action in unforeseen circumstances, or make decisions in cases that are not covered by the general rules, rather than as a day-to-day occurrence. Similarly, there is a difference in perspectives on handling uncertainty. In leadership research, this is described as the executive dealing with something that has gone wrong and putting it right. In the study at hand, the concept is expanded, to demonstrate that the executive’s actions can involve accommodating the worries that this uncertainty breeds within the organisation. Empirical data do not show any differences in the descriptions of the executive skills of women and men. Women and men practise these executive skills similarly. Men’s tendency to identify themselves with senior management, however, is interpreted as a sign of homosocial structures in the organisation. The fact that men are more ambivalent than women faced with the opportunity and responsibility of promoting change consequently indicates that admittance into a homosocial structure restricts their freedom of action. There is a difference, however, between the executive skills of women and men in that women, unlike men, have to relate to the issue of their own gender. Their approach to this can vary between two leadership discourses; one that is gender-neutral, and one where gender is significant. Women’s knowledge of how gender is constructed in organisations, in leadership and in other structures and processes, is thus included in the tacit knowledge that comprises their skills. Keywords: executive, manager, management, leadership, gender, skills, tacit knowledge, follow rules, breaking rules, rules, decision-making, accommodate uncertainty, homosocial structures. / Vad en chef gör och vilken betydelse chefens agerande har för företagets resultat är frågor som ständigt sysselsätter ledarskapsforskare. Men trots många tusen studier finns det inom forskningen inte någon gemensam uppfattning om vad begreppet ledarskap innebär. Inte heller inom företag och organisationer finns någon tydlig bild av vad chefer egentligen gör. Däremot visar till exempel satsningar på ledarutveckling att cheferna uppfattas som mycket viktiga för företagets resultat. Otydligheten i vad chefers arbete innebär tillsammans med föreställningen om chefens betydelse för företag och organisationer resulterar i att bilden av chefers arbete får inslag av magi. I den här studien ses chefskap som ett yrke och undersöks därför med en kvalitativ metod som innebär att yrkesutövare först skriftligt reflekterar över sitt yrkeskunnande och sedan i grupp diskuterar yrkeskunnandet utifrån de skriftliga reflektionerna. Metoden som kallas dialogseminariemetoden har använts i andra yrkesgrupper än chefer med goda resultat. Eftersom chefers yrkeskunnande inte tidigare undersökts som yrkeskunnande har resultaten jämförts med ledarskapsforskning. Att kön har betydelse för förutsättningarna att få och att utöva chefskap visas i ledarskapsforskning med könsperspektiv. Därför har även studiens resultat analyserats ur detta forskningsperspektiv. Yrkeskunnande för såväl chefer som medarbetare beskrivs som regelföljande det vill säga att tolka regler och därefter agera i en konkret situation. En regel säger ingenting om hur den ska följas. Om följandet av en regel skulle beskrivas i en regel skulle följandet av denna regel behöva beskrivas i en regel och så vidare i all oändlighet. Istället måste regler tolkas något som kräver tillgång till ett ”bibliotek” av exempel. Ett specifikt yrkeskunnande för chefer är att utveckla medarbetarnas yrkeskunnande i form av regelföljande. För chefer innebär regelföljande att fatta beslut utifrån tyst kunskap. Den tysta kunskapen bygger på en inre bild av vad som händer just nu i verksamheten och är viktigt för kunder, medarbetare, organisation och omvärld. Samt en förståelse för vad människor drivs av, tänker, behöver, önskar och säger. Den tysta kunskapen byggs upp i ett växelspel mellan reflektion över exempel och ett strategiskt agerande. Ofta är beslutssituationerna otydliga och motstridiga. Det innebär att chefens yrkeskunnande innebär att härbärgera osäkerhet på tre olika sätt. Det första genom att stå för att alla beslut inte kan fattas och att vissa inte kan fattas snabbt. Det andra genom att tydliggöra för medarbetarna att verksamheten inte går att fullt ut styra med regelverk och att omdöme i form av reflekterad erfarenhet därför är en viktig del i allt handlande. Det tredje genom att hantera insikten om att chefspositionen inte automatiskt innebär att det går att fatta rätt beslut. Chefen härbärgerar således omvärldens osäkerhet, medarbetarnas osäkerhet och den egna osäkerheten. I analys av empirin framkommer också en annan aspekt av chefers yrkeskunnande. Chefer måste vara snabba, inte bara i betydelsen att ha hög arbetskapacitet utan också som att aldrig säga nej till eller ifrågasätta leveranser. Jämförelsen med ledarskapsforskning visar framför allt på skillnader i tolkningen av empirin. Chefers regelföljande beteende beskrivs till exempel även inom ledarskapsforskningen. Men där beskrivs det som något som sker ibland, att chefen gör en brandkårsutryckning när något oväntat händer eller fattar beslut i de fall som inte hanteras av regelverken, inte som något som sker ständigt. På samma sätt finns en skillnad i synen på hanterandet av osäkerhet. Det beskrivs inom ledarskapsforskningen som att chefen hanterar det som gått fel och ställer allt till rätta. I denna studie utvecklas begreppet genom att visa att hanterandet för chefen kan innebära att härbärgera den oro osäkerheten medför i organisationen. Empirin visar inte några skillnader mellan kvinnor och män i beskrivningarna av chefers yrkeskunnande. Kvinnor och män utövar chefskap på samma sätt. Männens identifikation med högre chefer tolkas dock som tecken på homosociala strukturer i organisationen. Att männen är mer ambivalenta än kvinnorna till både möjligheten och det egna ansvaret för att driva förändring innebär då att upptagande i en homosocial struktur begränsar handlingsutrymmet. Däremot finns det en skillnad mellan kvinnors och mäns yrkeskunnande som chefer på så sätt att kvinnor till skillnad från män måste förhålla sig till sitt kön. Kvinnorna väljer att hantera detta genom att växla mellan två ledarskapsdiskurser; en könsneutral och en där kön har betydelse. Kvinnornas kunskap om hur kön görs i organisationer, i konstruktionen av ledarskap såväl som i övriga strukturer och processer, är således en del i den tysta kunskap som utgör deras yrkeskunnande. / <p>QC 20120514</p>