Esta tese apresenta as bases para a elaboração de um protótipo de dicionário de regência verbal para alunos brasileiros estudantes de Espanhol como Língua Estrangeira e se insere na área de Estudos da Linguagem, mais especificamente na linha de pesquisa Lexicografia, Terminologia e Tradução: relações textuais. O objetivo geral desta tese é o de estabelecer os princípios e o protótipo para a elaboração de um dicionário de regência verbal Português-Espanhol para alunos brasileiros estudantes de Espanhol como Língua Estrangeira (E/LE). Os públicos previstos para o dicionário são principalmente estudantes universitários de espanhol dos níveis básico e intermediário, níveis nos quais identificamos maiores dificuldades em relação à regência verbal, e pretende auxiliá-los na produção oral e escrita. Os objetivos específicos da tese são (i) identificar as dificuldades que estudantes brasileiros de Espanhol têm em relação à regência verbal e (ii) analisar obras lexicográficas em Língua Espanhola e Portuguesa para identificar a forma como tratam as questões relativas à regência verbal. Como fundamentação teórica, seguimos principalmente os pressupostos da Lexicografia Pedagógica. Partimos de pesquisas anteriores sobre as dificuldades relativas ao uso das preposições em Espanhol por aprendizes brasileiros e coletamos dados com acadêmicos de uma universidade federal brasileira. Com base nessas informações e no referencial teórico adotado, expomos os parâmetros que orientam a elaboração do dicionário, especificando seu usuário, sua função, os critérios para a seleção da macroestrutura e a proposta de sua microestrutura. Para ilustrar a proposta, são apresentados 34 verbetes, com os seguintes verbos: acompanhar, aconselhar, amar, apoiar-se, bater, chegar, começar, comprar, concordar, continuar, convidar, costumar, demorar, esconder, esperar, estar, fazer, ficar, gostar, intervir, ir, limpar, necessitar, parecer, querer, reclamar, sair, ser, telefonar, ter, viajar, vir, viver e voltar. Com os resultados apresentados, pretende-se não apenas preencher uma lacuna na lexicografia bilíngue relativa ao par de línguas Português-Espanhol, mas também refletir sobre a importância de obras lexicográficas específicas para dar conta das necessidades dos estudantes brasileiros de Espanhol. / This thesis presents the bases for the elaboration of a prototype verbal regency dictionary to Brazilian students of Spanish as a foreign language. This research is inserted in the area of language studies, more specifically in lexicography, terminology and translation: textual relations. The general purpose of this thesis is to establish the principles and prototype to the elaboration of a verbal regency dictionary of Portuguese-Spanish to Brazilian students of Spanish as a foreign language (S/FL). The target public to this dictionary is mainly university students of Spanish from basic and intermediate levels. The same ones in which we identify more difficulties in relation to verbal regency.The intention is to help them in oral and written activities. Yet the specific objectives of this thesis are to identify the difficulties that Brazilian students of Spanish have in relation to verbal regency and also to analize lexicographic works in Spanish and Portuguese in order to identify how these students treat the questions related to verbal regency. As theory, we draw on Pedagogic Lexicography. We start from previous research about difficulties related to the use of prepositions in Spanish for Brazilian learners, and we collected datas with university students of a federal Brazilian university. Taking into account these information and the theory, we report the parameters that guide the elaboration of the dictionary, by especifying its users, its function, the criteria for the selection of a macrostructure and the proposal of its microstructure. To illustrate this proposal thirty-four entries are presented, with the following verbs: to follow, to advise, to love, to rely on, to beat, to arrive, to start, to buy, to agree, to continue, to invite, to accustom, to delay, to hide, to wait, to be, to do, to stay, to like, to interfere, to go, to clean, to need, to seem, to want, to complain, to leave, to be, to phone, to have, to travel, to come, to live and to return. With the results presented, we intend not only to fill in a gap in bilingual lexicography related to the pair of Portuguese – Spanish languages, but also to reflect about the importance of specific lexicographic works to account for the needs of Brazilian students of Spanish. / Esta tesis presenta los fundamentos para la elaboración de un prototipo de diccionario de régimen verbal para alumnos brasileros estudiantes de Español como Lengua Extranjera y se inserta en el área de Estudos da Linguagem, más especificamente en la línea de investigación Lexicografia, Terminologia e Tradução: relações textuais. El objetivo general de esta tesis es el de establecer los principios y el prototipo para la elaboración de un diccionario de régimen verbal portugués-español para alumnos brasileros estudiantes de Español como Lengua Extranjera (E/LE). Los públicos previstos para el diccionario son principalmente estudiantes universitarios de español de los niveles básico e intermediario, niveles en los que identificamos mayores dificultades en relación con el régimen verbal, y busca ayudarlos en la producción oral y escrita. A su vez, los objetivos específicos de la tesis son los de identificar las dificultades que los estudiantes brasileros de español tienen en relación con el régimen verbal y analizar obras lexicográficas en Lengua Española y Portuguesa para identificar la forma como tratan el tema del régimen verbal. Como marco teórico, seguimos sobre todo los supuestos de la Lexicografía Pedagógica. Partimos de investigaciones anteriores sobre las dificultades relativas al uso de las preposiciones en español por parte de los aprendices brasileros y recolectamos datos con alumnos universitarios de una universidad federal brasilera. Sobre la base de dichas informaciones y teniendo en cuenta el marco teórico adoptado, exponemos los parámetros que orientan la elaboración del diccionario, especificando su usuario, su función, los criterios para la selección de la macroestructura y la propuesta de su microestructura. Para ilustrar la propuesta, presentamos 34 artículos, con los siguientes verbos: acompañar, aconsejar, amar, apoyarse, golpear, llegar, empezar, comprar, acceder, continuar, invitar, soler, tardar, esconderse, esperar, estar, hacer, quedar, gustar, intervenir, ir, limpiar, necesitar, parecer, querer, reclamar, salir, ser, llamar, tener, viajar, venir, vivir y volver. Con los resultados presentados, se busca no solo rellenar una laguna en la lexicografía bilingüe relativa a las lenguas portuguesa y española, sino también reflexionar sobre la importancia de las obras lexicográficas específicas para dar cuenta de las necesidades de los estudiantes brasileros de español.

Esta tese apresenta as bases para a elaboração de um protótipo de dicionário de regência verbal para alunos brasileiros estudantes de Espanhol como Língua Estrangeira e se insere na área de Estudos da Linguagem, mais especificamente na linha de pesquisa Lexicografia, Terminologia e Tradução: relações textuais. O objetivo geral desta tese é o de estabelecer os princípios e o protótipo para a elaboração de um dicionário de regência verbal Português-Espanhol para alunos brasileiros estudantes de Espanhol como Língua Estrangeira (E/LE). Os públicos previstos para o dicionário são principalmente estudantes universitários de espanhol dos níveis básico e intermediário, níveis nos quais identificamos maiores dificuldades em relação à regência verbal, e pretende auxiliá-los na produção oral e escrita. Os objetivos específicos da tese são (i) identificar as dificuldades que estudantes brasileiros de Espanhol têm em relação à regência verbal e (ii) analisar obras lexicográficas em Língua Espanhola e Portuguesa para identificar a forma como tratam as questões relativas à regência verbal. Como fundamentação teórica, seguimos principalmente os pressupostos da Lexicografia Pedagógica. Partimos de pesquisas anteriores sobre as dificuldades relativas ao uso das preposições em Espanhol por aprendizes brasileiros e coletamos dados com acadêmicos de uma universidade federal brasileira. Com base nessas informações e no referencial teórico adotado, expomos os parâmetros que orientam a elaboração do dicionário, especificando seu usuário, sua função, os critérios para a seleção da macroestrutura e a proposta de sua microestrutura. Para ilustrar a proposta, são apresentados 34 verbetes, com os seguintes verbos: acompanhar, aconselhar, amar, apoiar-se, bater, chegar, começar, comprar, concordar, continuar, convidar, costumar, demorar, esconder, esperar, estar, fazer, ficar, gostar, intervir, ir, limpar, necessitar, parecer, querer, reclamar, sair, ser, telefonar, ter, viajar, vir, viver e voltar. Com os resultados apresentados, pretende-se não apenas preencher uma lacuna na lexicografia bilíngue relativa ao par de línguas Português-Espanhol, mas também refletir sobre a importância de obras lexicográficas específicas para dar conta das necessidades dos estudantes brasileiros de Espanhol. / This thesis presents the bases for the elaboration of a prototype verbal regency dictionary to Brazilian students of Spanish as a foreign language. This research is inserted in the area of language studies, more specifically in lexicography, terminology and translation: textual relations. The general purpose of this thesis is to establish the principles and prototype to the elaboration of a verbal regency dictionary of Portuguese-Spanish to Brazilian students of Spanish as a foreign language (S/FL). The target public to this dictionary is mainly university students of Spanish from basic and intermediate levels. The same ones in which we identify more difficulties in relation to verbal regency.The intention is to help them in oral and written activities. Yet the specific objectives of this thesis are to identify the difficulties that Brazilian students of Spanish have in relation to verbal regency and also to analize lexicographic works in Spanish and Portuguese in order to identify how these students treat the questions related to verbal regency. As theory, we draw on Pedagogic Lexicography. We start from previous research about difficulties related to the use of prepositions in Spanish for Brazilian learners, and we collected datas with university students of a federal Brazilian university. Taking into account these information and the theory, we report the parameters that guide the elaboration of the dictionary, by especifying its users, its function, the criteria for the selection of a macrostructure and the proposal of its microstructure. To illustrate this proposal thirty-four entries are presented, with the following verbs: to follow, to advise, to love, to rely on, to beat, to arrive, to start, to buy, to agree, to continue, to invite, to accustom, to delay, to hide, to wait, to be, to do, to stay, to like, to interfere, to go, to clean, to need, to seem, to want, to complain, to leave, to be, to phone, to have, to travel, to come, to live and to return. With the results presented, we intend not only to fill in a gap in bilingual lexicography related to the pair of Portuguese – Spanish languages, but also to reflect about the importance of specific lexicographic works to account for the needs of Brazilian students of Spanish. / Esta tesis presenta los fundamentos para la elaboración de un prototipo de diccionario de régimen verbal para alumnos brasileros estudiantes de Español como Lengua Extranjera y se inserta en el área de Estudos da Linguagem, más especificamente en la línea de investigación Lexicografia, Terminologia e Tradução: relações textuais. El objetivo general de esta tesis es el de establecer los principios y el prototipo para la elaboración de un diccionario de régimen verbal portugués-español para alumnos brasileros estudiantes de Español como Lengua Extranjera (E/LE). Los públicos previstos para el diccionario son principalmente estudiantes universitarios de español de los niveles básico e intermediario, niveles en los que identificamos mayores dificultades en relación con el régimen verbal, y busca ayudarlos en la producción oral y escrita. A su vez, los objetivos específicos de la tesis son los de identificar las dificultades que los estudiantes brasileros de español tienen en relación con el régimen verbal y analizar obras lexicográficas en Lengua Española y Portuguesa para identificar la forma como tratan el tema del régimen verbal. Como marco teórico, seguimos sobre todo los supuestos de la Lexicografía Pedagógica. Partimos de investigaciones anteriores sobre las dificultades relativas al uso de las preposiciones en español por parte de los aprendices brasileros y recolectamos datos con alumnos universitarios de una universidad federal brasilera. Sobre la base de dichas informaciones y teniendo en cuenta el marco teórico adoptado, exponemos los parámetros que orientan la elaboración del diccionario, especificando su usuario, su función, los criterios para la selección de la macroestructura y la propuesta de su microestructura. Para ilustrar la propuesta, presentamos 34 artículos, con los siguientes verbos: acompañar, aconsejar, amar, apoyarse, golpear, llegar, empezar, comprar, acceder, continuar, invitar, soler, tardar, esconderse, esperar, estar, hacer, quedar, gustar, intervenir, ir, limpiar, necesitar, parecer, querer, reclamar, salir, ser, llamar, tener, viajar, venir, vivir y volver. Con los resultados presentados, se busca no solo rellenar una laguna en la lexicografía bilingüe relativa a las lenguas portuguesa y española, sino también reflexionar sobre la importancia de las obras lexicográficas específicas para dar cuenta de las necesidades de los estudiantes brasileros de español.

Esta tese apresenta as bases para a elaboração de um protótipo de dicionário de regência verbal para alunos brasileiros estudantes de Espanhol como Língua Estrangeira e se insere na área de Estudos da Linguagem, mais especificamente na linha de pesquisa Lexicografia, Terminologia e Tradução: relações textuais. O objetivo geral desta tese é o de estabelecer os princípios e o protótipo para a elaboração de um dicionário de regência verbal Português-Espanhol para alunos brasileiros estudantes de Espanhol como Língua Estrangeira (E/LE). Os públicos previstos para o dicionário são principalmente estudantes universitários de espanhol dos níveis básico e intermediário, níveis nos quais identificamos maiores dificuldades em relação à regência verbal, e pretende auxiliá-los na produção oral e escrita. Os objetivos específicos da tese são (i) identificar as dificuldades que estudantes brasileiros de Espanhol têm em relação à regência verbal e (ii) analisar obras lexicográficas em Língua Espanhola e Portuguesa para identificar a forma como tratam as questões relativas à regência verbal. Como fundamentação teórica, seguimos principalmente os pressupostos da Lexicografia Pedagógica. Partimos de pesquisas anteriores sobre as dificuldades relativas ao uso das preposições em Espanhol por aprendizes brasileiros e coletamos dados com acadêmicos de uma universidade federal brasileira. Com base nessas informações e no referencial teórico adotado, expomos os parâmetros que orientam a elaboração do dicionário, especificando seu usuário, sua função, os critérios para a seleção da macroestrutura e a proposta de sua microestrutura. Para ilustrar a proposta, são apresentados 34 verbetes, com os seguintes verbos: acompanhar, aconselhar, amar, apoiar-se, bater, chegar, começar, comprar, concordar, continuar, convidar, costumar, demorar, esconder, esperar, estar, fazer, ficar, gostar, intervir, ir, limpar, necessitar, parecer, querer, reclamar, sair, ser, telefonar, ter, viajar, vir, viver e voltar. Com os resultados apresentados, pretende-se não apenas preencher uma lacuna na lexicografia bilíngue relativa ao par de línguas Português-Espanhol, mas também refletir sobre a importância de obras lexicográficas específicas para dar conta das necessidades dos estudantes brasileiros de Espanhol. / This thesis presents the bases for the elaboration of a prototype verbal regency dictionary to Brazilian students of Spanish as a foreign language. This research is inserted in the area of language studies, more specifically in lexicography, terminology and translation: textual relations. The general purpose of this thesis is to establish the principles and prototype to the elaboration of a verbal regency dictionary of Portuguese-Spanish to Brazilian students of Spanish as a foreign language (S/FL). The target public to this dictionary is mainly university students of Spanish from basic and intermediate levels. The same ones in which we identify more difficulties in relation to verbal regency.The intention is to help them in oral and written activities. Yet the specific objectives of this thesis are to identify the difficulties that Brazilian students of Spanish have in relation to verbal regency and also to analize lexicographic works in Spanish and Portuguese in order to identify how these students treat the questions related to verbal regency. As theory, we draw on Pedagogic Lexicography. We start from previous research about difficulties related to the use of prepositions in Spanish for Brazilian learners, and we collected datas with university students of a federal Brazilian university. Taking into account these information and the theory, we report the parameters that guide the elaboration of the dictionary, by especifying its users, its function, the criteria for the selection of a macrostructure and the proposal of its microstructure. To illustrate this proposal thirty-four entries are presented, with the following verbs: to follow, to advise, to love, to rely on, to beat, to arrive, to start, to buy, to agree, to continue, to invite, to accustom, to delay, to hide, to wait, to be, to do, to stay, to like, to interfere, to go, to clean, to need, to seem, to want, to complain, to leave, to be, to phone, to have, to travel, to come, to live and to return. With the results presented, we intend not only to fill in a gap in bilingual lexicography related to the pair of Portuguese – Spanish languages, but also to reflect about the importance of specific lexicographic works to account for the needs of Brazilian students of Spanish. / Esta tesis presenta los fundamentos para la elaboración de un prototipo de diccionario de régimen verbal para alumnos brasileros estudiantes de Español como Lengua Extranjera y se inserta en el área de Estudos da Linguagem, más especificamente en la línea de investigación Lexicografia, Terminologia e Tradução: relações textuais. El objetivo general de esta tesis es el de establecer los principios y el prototipo para la elaboración de un diccionario de régimen verbal portugués-español para alumnos brasileros estudiantes de Español como Lengua Extranjera (E/LE). Los públicos previstos para el diccionario son principalmente estudiantes universitarios de español de los niveles básico e intermediario, niveles en los que identificamos mayores dificultades en relación con el régimen verbal, y busca ayudarlos en la producción oral y escrita. A su vez, los objetivos específicos de la tesis son los de identificar las dificultades que los estudiantes brasileros de español tienen en relación con el régimen verbal y analizar obras lexicográficas en Lengua Española y Portuguesa para identificar la forma como tratan el tema del régimen verbal. Como marco teórico, seguimos sobre todo los supuestos de la Lexicografía Pedagógica. Partimos de investigaciones anteriores sobre las dificultades relativas al uso de las preposiciones en español por parte de los aprendices brasileros y recolectamos datos con alumnos universitarios de una universidad federal brasilera. Sobre la base de dichas informaciones y teniendo en cuenta el marco teórico adoptado, exponemos los parámetros que orientan la elaboración del diccionario, especificando su usuario, su función, los criterios para la selección de la macroestructura y la propuesta de su microestructura. Para ilustrar la propuesta, presentamos 34 artículos, con los siguientes verbos: acompañar, aconsejar, amar, apoyarse, golpear, llegar, empezar, comprar, acceder, continuar, invitar, soler, tardar, esconderse, esperar, estar, hacer, quedar, gustar, intervenir, ir, limpiar, necesitar, parecer, querer, reclamar, salir, ser, llamar, tener, viajar, venir, vivir y volver. Con los resultados presentados, se busca no solo rellenar una laguna en la lexicografía bilingüe relativa a las lenguas portuguesa y española, sino también reflexionar sobre la importancia de las obras lexicográficas específicas para dar cuenta de las necesidades de los estudiantes brasileros de español.

En accord avec mes intérêts scientifiques, j’ai décidé, dans le cadre de ce travail doctoral, d’étudier un corpus correspondant règne de Sanche IV, roi de Castille et du León de 1284 à 1295, et constitué des quatre œuvres suivantes qui, à l'instar du Sendebar ou du Calila e Dimna antérieurs, exploitent toutes les ressources de l'exemplum afin d'enseigner certes mais aussi de captiver le lecteur : El Libro del Tesoro, El Lucidario, El libro del consejo e de los consejeros et Los Castigos de Sancho IV. Bien que chacun de ces livres ait été l’objet d’études ponctuelles intéressantes, ce groupement de textes n’avait, jusqu’à présent, bénéficié d’aucune grande étude monographique et appelait donc une analyse approfondie. Ces quatre ouvrages, d’origine spatiale et temporelle différente, se sont construits selon les mentalités et les pratiques de l’époque, c’est-à-dire en réutilisant, en retravaillant la matière des sources par des ajouts, des corrections, des suppressions en fonction des visées de l’auteur ou du promoteur de l’œuvre. Cette réappropriation des sources et des modèles correspond à une finalité plus ou moins évidente ou avouée, notamment si l’on en juge à l’aune du « molinisme », pensée politique du début du XIVe siècle. Les œuvres de cette période sont, en effet, soit écrites soit commanditées par le roi ou la régente, Marie de Molina. En outre, on connaît suffisamment le rôle joué par l’Archevêque de Tolède et l’importance de la pensée religieuse dans la constitution et la consolidation du « molinisme », pour parier sur l’existence d’un discours renvoyant à l’éthique chrétienne, à la morale ou à la philosophie. J’ai donc analysé la nature du projet moral, religieux et politique qui sous-tend cette littérature sapientielle. L’analyse des textes du corpus prend en compte, dans un premier temps, la structure des ouvrages et du cadre narratif, afin de définir la voix auctoriale, c’est-à-dire celle qui choisit sources et modèles et se les réapproprie : il s’agit de mettre en lumière un mode de pensée spécifique et des intentions particulières. Dans un deuxième temps, j’ai confronté ces textes aux contextes, notamment historique, si prégnant pendant le règne de Sanche IV et la régence, pour en extraire le sens politique et idéologique, moral, religieux ou philosophique. Enfin, une des finalités de ce travail de thèse est de comprendre comment, à partir de la réécriture des sources, traités, écrits religieux, auteurs classiques, exempla… s’est réalisé ce que l’on doit considérer comme un renouvellement de la production sapientielle. La thèse permet, grâce à une confrontation croisée entre histoire et littérature, de dégager l’évolution de la littérature sapientielle médiévale en castillan, et, parallèlement, de mettre en lumière la vision culturelle et morale, politique et sociétale promue par le roi Sanche IV et soutenue ensuite par Marie de Molina. / In line with my centres of scientific interest, I have decided to examine a corpus corresponding to the reign of Sancho IV, namely El Libro del Tesoro, El Lucidario, El libro del consejo e de los consejeros and Los Castigos of Sancho IV. Although interesting individual studies have been produced on each of these books, the collation of the four texts has not hitherto benefited from any in-depth monographic study. These four works, all of different origin in time and space, were put together according to the mind-sets and practices of the time, by revisiting the source material by means of additions, corrections and deletions according to the author’s intentions. Such reworking of the sources and models corresponds to a more or less self-evident or openly admitted purpose, given that these works were either written or commissioned by the king. It is therefore essential to question the nature of the political project underlying this sapential literature. The initial analysis of the texts takes account of their structure and narrative framework in order to define the voice of the author, that is to say who chooses and takes on the relevant sources and models. Secondly, these texts need to be set against their context, especially their historical context, in order to highlight their political, ideological, moral, religious or philosophical meaning. Finally, one of the aims of this thesis is to understand how, as from the-re-writing of the sources, treatises, scriptures, classic authors and other exempla, what can be considered as a renewal of sapiential or wisdom literature actually came about. Thanks to such a cross-matching of history and literature, the thesis should evidence the evolution of sapential literature and throw light upon the cultural, moral, political and social vision promulgated by king Sancho IV and upheld by Maria de Molina.

- The thesis is focused on relations between Sweden and Brandenburg in the years 1660 - 1701. Although Sweden is considered as an empire practically all over the 17th century, a new, important power rises in its neighbourhood, namely Brandenburg-Prussia, and this rise is finished by the Royal coronation of Fredrick I in 1701. Main part of the thesis is dedicated to the political and military relations, less to the cultural relations. Even other countries, following and protecting their interests in the Baltic region, are taken into account, especially Denmark and France. The aim of the thesis is to analyse relations between Sweden and Brandenburg and to try to find an answer on the question, if Sweden's focus on its internal problems and reforms contributed to the rise of Prussia or if there is no direct connection between these two tendencies. Key terms - Swedish Imperial Period, regency, Charles XI, Charles XII, Louis XIV, Elector Fredrick William, Elector Fredrick III, Scanian War, foreign policy, Baltic Sea hegemony

This is a study on crowns, wreaths and diadems as role symbols in Peter Paul Rubens’s 24 paintings for Marie de’Medici in Paris, 1622 – 1625. In these paintings, historic facts are shown with the addition of mythological gods and their symbols giving allegorical scenes, where sometimes also Christian symbols or subjects can be traced. A reader of these painted motifs therefore can choose to see the symbols as regal, Christian or mythological. The crown and the wreaths rarely present a challenge in modern interpretations, but the magnificent diadem does. Rubens chooses this diadem for higher goddesses, and for the queen a couple of times too. For some reason, this symbol is mostly misread in analyses. At this point in history, the crowns and the wreaths have been collected from divine spheres and turned into physical objects on earth used by the high and mighty. The large diadem has not; it is still only a symbol on a goddess. If and when put on a human in a portrait, the symbol gives the lady the abilities and characters of a goddess. Rubens uses his own design when turning this symbol into a physical picture;it is a high, pointed diadem with pearls and coloured gems set in gold. He has used it on goddesses both before and after the Medici commission. Today, we have seen numerous spectacular headpieces like this from late 18th century an onwards, wherefore it is an easy mistake to believe that Rubens copied what he saw instead of, as he actually did, foreboding a coming fashion. In addition to confirming this, I also suggest that it is the highest goddess Juno queen Marie is personifying. Juno is mostly known today as a goddess for women and childbirth. But she had far more masculine tasks in earlier days: she was seen as the saviour of the country and a special counsellor of the state. These two important roles are exactly what Marie de’ Medici took on when acting as regent for her young son, Louis XIII,after the murder of her husband, the late Henry IV. By putting Juno’s diadem on Marie’s head, when sitting on a throne, the divine abilities are manifested according to how a historic period could be transferred to the allegorical language in a painting at the time.

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Wachsfigurenkabinette waren nicht immer die billigen Sensationsmaschinen, als die sie heute verstanden werden. Vor der Erfindung und Verbreitung von Photographie und illustrierten Zeitschriften waren sie Bildmedien, die der Vermittlung von visuellen Informationen dienten. Kein anderes Medium konnte die Protagonisten der Weltgeschichte so unmittelbar darstellen wie die Sammlungen lebensgroßer Wachsfiguren. Das Material Wachs trug wesentlich zu ihrem Erfolg bei, denn es ermöglichte die täuschend echten und bis dahin realistischsten Darstellungen von bekannten Persönlichkeiten. Die Operationsweise dieses Mediums wird am Beispiel von Madame Tussauds Wachsfigurenkabinett genauer untersucht. Dazu wurde, soweit möglich, die Reiseroute, der Aufbau und die “Besetzung” der Ausstellung rekonstruiert, sowie die soziale Herkunft der Besucher in der ersten Hälfte des 19. Jh.s ermittelt. Es wird deutlich, daß Marie Tussaud eine talentierte Portraitkünstlerin und ambitionierte Schaustellerin war, deren sorgfältig gestaltete Ausstellung vor allem Besucher der aufstrebenden Mittelschicht mit Interesse an Menschenkenntnis anzog. Das Wachsfigurenkabinett fiel damit in die Kategorie der “nützliche Unterhaltung”, die der Wissens- und Charakterbildung diente. Madame Tussaud ist vielleicht die bekannteste Betreiberin eines Wachsfigurenkabinetts – keinesfalls aber die erste. Die Geschichte der kommerziellen Ausstellung lebensgroßer Wachsfiguren reicht ins beginnende 17. Jh. zurück, wobei sich das Konzept der Kabinette im Laufe der Jahrhunderte stark gewandelt hat. In dieser Arbeit werden drei Ausstellungsformen unterschieden: a) das barocke Figurengruppen-Kabinett, das programmatische oder allegorische Geschichten erzählt, b) die aufklärerische Portraitgalerie (wie z.B. Madame Tussauds), in der Persönlichkeiten als charakteristische Individuen vorgestellt werden, c) das moderne Tableau-Kabinett, wo alltägliche oder außergewöhnliche Ereignisse auf bis dahin unübertroffen realistische Weise wiedergegeben werden. Als Nachrichtenkanal und als Medium für realistische Wirklichkeitswiedergabe sind Wachsfigurenkabinette seit den 1920er Jahren überholt. Als Spiel mit der menschlichen Sinneswahrnehmung bleiben sie jedoch vorerst aktuell. / Waxworks were not always the cheap sensation spinners as which we perceive them today. Before the invention and wide-spread use of photography and illustrated magazines they were an important medium for distributing visual information. No other form of communication could offer such immediate representations the protagonists of world history. Perhaps the greatest part in their success took the material wax which allowed the creation of deceptively lifelike and hitherto most realistic depictions of celebrated individuals. In this thesis, Madame Tussaud’s serves as a prime example for examining the mode of operation of a waxwork exhibition. As far as the sources allow, the itinerary, the ‘cast’ and display of the exhibition is reconstructed, as well as the number and the social background of its visitors during the first half of the 19th century. It emerges that Marie Tussaud was a talented portrait artist and a show woman of ambition whose carefully constructed exhibition attracted mainly middle-class visitors with an interest in human classification. Thus, the waxworks was a ‘rational entertainment’ that was thought to further the development of knowledge and character in its visitors. While Madame Tussaud’s was perhaps the most famous waxworks, it was not the first one. The history of commercial exhibition of life-sized wax figures goes back to the 17th century. Their concept, however, changed significantly over the centuries. Three forms of waxworks are differentiated here: a) the baroque waxworks of groups of figures narrating programmatic and allegorical stories, b) the enlightened portrait gallery – such as Madame Tussaud’s – where celebrities are presented as individual characters, c) the modern tableau waxworks, that represents extraordinary as well as everyday events in a realistic way that was hitherto unprecedented. As a channel for the distribution of news and as a medium for representing reality waxworks have become outdated. As a tickle for the senses, however, they will yet remain effective.

This thesis reassesses the nature and importance of the Scottish Episcopal Church in Edinburgh and more widely. Based on a microstudy of one chapel community over a twenty-four year period, it addresses a series of questions of religion, identity, gender, culture and civic society in late Enlightenment Edinburgh, Scotland, and Britain, combining ecclesiastical, social and economic history. The study examines the congregation of Charlotte Episcopal Chapel, Rose Street, Edinburgh, from its foundation by English clergyman Daniel Sandford in 1794 to its move to the new Gothic chapel of St John's in 1818. Initially an independent chapel, Daniel Sandford's congregation joined the Scottish Episcopal Church in 1805 and the following year he was made Bishop of Edinburgh, although he contined to combine this role with that of rector to the chapel until his death in 1830. Methodologically, the thesis combines a detailed reassessment of Daniel Sandford's thought and ministry (Chapter Two) with a prosopographical study of 431 individuals connected with the congregation as officials or in the in the chapel registers (Chapter Three). Biography of the leader and prosopography of the community are brought to illuminate and enrich one another to understand the wealth and business networks of the congregation (Chapter Four) and their attitudes to politics, piety and gender (Chapter Five). The thesis argues that Daniel Sandford's Evangelical Episcopalianism was both original in Scotland, and one of the most successful in appealing to educated and influential members of Edinburgh society. The congregation, drawn largely from the newly-built West End of Edinburgh, were bourgeois and British in their composition. The core membership of privileged Scots, rooted in land and law, led, but were also challenged by and forced to adapt to a broad social spread who brought new wealth and influence into the West End through India and the consumer boom. The discussion opens up many avenues for further research including the connections between Scottish Episcopalianism and romanticism, the importance of India and social mobility within the consumer economy in the development of Edinburgh, and Scottish female intellectual culture and its engagement with religion and enlightenment. Understanding the role of enlightened, evangelical Episcopalianism, which is the contribution of this study, will form an important context for these enquiries.