abstract: The environmental and economic assessment of neighborhood-scale transit-oriented urban form changes should include initial construction impacts through long-term use to fully understand the benefits and costs of smart growth policies. The long-term impacts of moving people closer to transit require the coupling of behavioral forecasting with environmental assessment. Using new light rail and bus rapid transit in Los Angeles, California as a case study, a life-cycle environmental and economic assessment is developed to assess the potential range of impacts resulting from mixed-use infill development. An integrated transportation and land use life-cycle assessment framework is developed to estimate energy consumption, air emissions, and economic (public, developer, and user) costs. Residential and commercial buildings, automobile travel, and transit operation changes are included and a 60-year forecast is developed that compares transit-oriented growth against growth in areas without close access to high-capacity transit service. The results show that commercial developments create the greatest potential for impact reductions followed by residential commute shifts to transit, both of which may be effected by access to high-capacity transit, reduced parking requirements, and developer incentives. Greenhouse gas emission reductions up to 470 Gg CO₂-equivalents per year can be achieved with potential costs savings for TOD users. The potential for respiratory impacts (PM₁₀-equivalents) and smog formation can be reduced by 28-35%. The shift from business-as-usual growth to transit-oriented development can decrease user costs by $3,100 per household per year over the building lifetime, despite higher rental costs within the mixed-use development. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Civil Engineering 2014

Submitted by Renata Lopes (renatasil82@gmail.com) on 2018-08-13T13:07:32Z No. of bitstreams: 1 fernandotadeudearaujolima.pdf: 30345992 bytes, checksum: 11b123f41224b7ae8946de219847f74e (MD5) / Approved for entry into archive by Adriana Oliveira (adriana.oliveira@ufjf.edu.br) on 2018-08-13T13:08:14Z (GMT) No. of bitstreams: 1 fernandotadeudearaujolima.pdf: 30345992 bytes, checksum: 11b123f41224b7ae8946de219847f74e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-13T13:08:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 fernandotadeudearaujolima.pdf: 30345992 bytes, checksum: 11b123f41224b7ae8946de219847f74e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2017-04-29 / PROQUALI (UFJF) / Esta investigação centra-se na elaboração de um sistema que articula métricas de avaliação de desempenho a recursos e funcionalidades algorítmico-paramétricas, de maneira a permitir analisar e otimizar diferentes aspectos relativos ao grau de eficiência e às possibilidades de operação de configurações geométricas e algébricas de uma determinada área urbana. Neste âmbito, esta tese aborda o uso de recursos computacionais e ferramentas algorítmicas especificamente elaboradas para mensurar a performance de áreas urbanas, sob a perspectiva de princípios objetivamente mensuráveis do Desenvolvimento Orientado pelo Transporte (DOT), um modelo de desenvolvimento urbano que visa a cidades mais autônomas e mais sustentáveis. Mais especificamente, a presente pesquisa visa a verificar como atributos mensuráveis, geométricos e algébricos (e, portanto, programáveis) do DOT podem ser implementados por meio de um modelo computacional que utiliza métodos de otimização para dar suporte à tomada de decisão no processo de projetos urbanos. Assim, este trabalho é orientado no sentido da elaboração de um sistema que possa ser integrado a processos de projeto urbano, fornecendo suporte à organização de bairros e cidades e contribuindo para o aprimoramento das possibilidades de análise e proposição em contextos urbanísticos. / This research focuses on the development of a system that articulates performance evaluation metrics to algorithmic-parametric features and functionalities, in order to analyze and optimize different aspects related to the degree of efficiency and to the possibilities of operation of geometric and algebraic configurations of a given urban area. In this context, this thesis deals with the use of computational resources and algorithmic tools specifically designed to assess the performance of urban areas, from the perspective of objectively measurable principles of Transit Oriented Development (TOD), an urban development model aimed at more autonomous and sustainable cities. More specifically, the present research aims at verifying how TOD's measurable, geometric and algebraic (and therefore programmable) attributes can be implemented through a computational model that uses optimization methods to support decision making in urban design processes. Thus, this work is oriented toward the elaboration of a system that can be integrated to urban design processes, providing support to the organization of neighborhoods and cities and contributing to the improvement of analysis and proposition possibilities in urbanistic contexts.

Stationsnäraprincipen innebär att stadsutveckling koncentreras kring knutpunkter i kollektivtrafiken för att öka tillgängligheten och kollektivtrafikens konkurrenskraft mot bilburna transporter för att stärka en hållbar regionförstoring. Visionen att planera stationsnära i Östergötland kommer från regional nivå och för att implementera visionen i den kommunala planeringen blir det viktigt att visa hur både regionen och varje enskild kommun kan gynnas. Ett tillvägagångssätt är att hitta en arbetsmodell som kan lyfta regionala perspektiv i den lokala planeringsprocessen. Syftet med det här arbetet är att ta fram en förtätningsmodell för stationsnära planering i mindre tätorter. En förtätningsmodell för stockholmsregionen har tidigare tagits fram i samband med den regionala utvecklingsplanen och i det här arbetet undersöks om den modellen kan anpassas för stationsnära planering i mindre tätorter. Förtätningsmodellen har metodiskt anpassats med hjälp från två planerare i Östergötland samt en litteraturstudie om regional utveckling och stationsnära planering. Den anpassade modellen har prövats i två separata fallstudier och resultatet omfattar en kartläggning av förtätningspotentialen som beskrivs utifrån tre olika förtätningsscenarion; kommunala fokusområden för stationsnära planering, marknadsintressanta exploateringsområden och konsensusutveckling. Modellen möjliggör att den regionala visionen för stationsnära planering förs in i den kommunala planeringsprocessen och visar inte enbart hur både kommun och region kan gynnas av ett samarbete, utan även vilka knäckfrågor den enskilda kommunen måste övervinna för att fortsätta utvecklas i framtiden. / Stationsnäraprincipen imply that urban development is concentrated around public transport nodes to increase the accessibility and competitiveness of public transport against motoring transport to ensure that regional enlargement is achieved in a sustainable way. The vision for transit-oriented development (TOD) in Östergötland derives from a regional planning level and in order to implement the vision in municipal planning, it is important to specify how both the municipality and the region can benefit. An approach is to find a model that can raise the regional perspective in the local planning process. The purpose of this study is to develop a densification model that focuses on TOD in smaller urban areas. A densification model for the Stockholm region has previously been developed in conjunction with the regional development plan, and this study examines whether the model can be adapted to TOD planning in smaller urban areas. The densification model has been modified methodically with the help of two planners in Östergötland as well as a literature review on regional development and TOD. The custom model has been tested in two separate case studies and the results comprise a mapping of the potential for densification described in three different densification scenarios; municipal focus areas for densification, market interesting development areas and consensus development. This model enables the regional vision for TOD to be implemented into the municipal planning process and shows not only how both municipality and the region can benefit from a partnership, but also the critical problems that each individual municipality must overcome in order to continue to develop in the future.

Skellefteå befinner sig i en expansiv stadsutvecklingsfas vilket ställer högre krav på trafiksystemet. Studien syftar därmed till att undersöka den lokala planeringen av kollektivtrafik och hur den relaterar till ett Bus rapid transit (BRT)-system. Transit oritented development (TOD) som innebär en samplanering av kollektivtrafik och bebyggelse, utgör arbetets teoretiska ram och är nära kopplat till BRT. Metoden utförs genom semi-strukturerade intervjuer och dokumentanalys av policydokument från Skellefteå kommun. Studien visar att trafiknätet i centrala tätorten har en dålig framkomlighet, vilket kommunen vill åtgärda genom att bland annat utveckla sin kollektivtrafik med fördel framför bilen. I denna utveckling finns det aspekter som är lika ett BRT-system men även vissa delar som avviker från det. Det går även att urskilja tecken på TOD i den lokala planeringen, något som också underlättar en BRT-implementering. Det finns därmed tendenser och ansatser för en BRT-utveckling, men där andra likande alternativ övervägs. / Skellefteå is in an expansive urban development phase that causes higher demands on the traffic system. The study aims to investigate the local planning of public transport and how it relates to a Bus rapid transit (BRT) system. Transit-oriented development (TOD), which involves a co-planning of public transport and settlements, forms the theoretical framework of the study and is closely linked to BRT. The method consisted of semi-structured interviews and document analysis of policy documents from Skellefteå municipality. The study show that the traffic network in the central urban area consists of poor accessibility, which the municipality wants to solve by developing the public transport. In this development there are aspects that are similar to BRT, but some parts that deviate from it. It is possible to distinguish signs of TOD in the local planning, which also facilitates a BRT implementation. There are thus tendencies and approaches for a BRT development, but where other similar alternatives are considered.

Transit Oriented Development theoretical and practical framework represents an important tool for municipalities, private actors and citizens to enhance quality of life in urban contexts. Planning cities that encourage sustainable mobility patterns can contribute to aim at diversifying land use and making cities more accessible, safer and attractive for people. Handen has developed as a car-dependant area that is planned to growth its population and build more than 9000 new housing units by 2030 (Haninge Kommun, 2016). The TOD standard 3.0 was applied in the area around Handen pendeltåg station, to practically assess the TODness level of the area and provide recommendations to take into a consideration for future and current developments. Using the TOD standard in Handen can contribute to aim at a more sustainable growth pattern for both current and expected new citizens on the area. After implementing the evaluation system, it was found out that the best ranked variables were Compactness and Cycling. In contrast the variables that received the lowest scores were Walk, Densify, Connect, and Shift. Overall, Handen scored a Bronze level of TODness. Therefore, there are several actions that could be implemented on the study area in order to improve the TODness level. Specifically, Handen needs to diversify its land use, enhance the pedestrian network, encourage land mix use, decrease the space destined to cars and increase pedestrian connectivity, among others.

The integration of public transport planning and spatial planning has become an internationally well-known phenomenon and is seen by planners as a fundamental prerequisite for getting more people to travel sustainably, and thus reduce the emissions of greenhouse gases from the transport sector. The aim is to design the built environment in such a way that sustainable travel is promoted. Through semi-structured interviews, a document analysis, and a small field observation, this thesis examines how the municipality of Norrköping and the regional public transport company Östgötatrafiken collaborate to achieve successful integration. The aim has been to investigate how the process of this integration unfolds in the municipality of Norrköping in Sweden in order to contribute with more in-depth research in a Scandinavian context. This has been analyzed from a theoretical framework of TOD, Institutional theory and Collaborative planning.  The findings shows that both Norrköping municipality and Östgötatrafiken are working towards goals of increasing the share of trips with public transport, but when the purposes behind these differ, goal conflicts arise. This leads to different strategic considerations where Östgötatrafiken wants the built environment to promote time-efficient public transportation, while the municipality of Norrköping want the built environment to promote all sustainable means of transport. As a result, there are differences regarding public transport's mission, resources and priorities. As this study also shows that collaboration is the key to success, I argue that collaboration should take place as early as possible in the process, and already at the formulation of political and strategic goals.

Bus rapid transit (BRT) is an innovative bus system with sophisticated vehicles and inflexible busways integrated in the cities, high capacity and high quality, high speed and frequency, distinctive image and comfort. Many in Sweden believe that is impossible to introduce BRT, even though the Swedish towns and cities can benefit from the image, speed and frequency that BRT symbolizes. The archipelago-like urbanization, urban sprawl and the uncompetitive journey times of public transportation compared with the private car are identified as main obstacles. New questions emerged: Is it possible to transform and adjust the Swedish towns and cities for BRT? What demands BRT? How is transit-oriented development (TOD) applicable in a Swedish context as a policy to integrate cities and BRT? In this licentiate thesis I investigate the interrelationship between bus transportation and neighborhoods, between BRT and urban form as well as the possibilities to introduce busways and BRT, to trigger TOD and to transform the Swedish towns and cities for BRT. Much has been written about BRT, but seldom by architects or urban planners and designers. BRT and TOD are seen though urban form and processes of urbanization within a morphological tradition established by Kevin Lynch. BRT is represented by paths and nodes that disperse distinctive attractiveness pattern of desirability cores that shape neighborhoods as districts. TOD is about synchronizing the everyday urban life with public transportation systems. BRT-TOD is defined as a policy to recognize desirability cores spread by the different infrastructures of BRT and promote development of urban form within their attractiveness pattern at urban and regional scale. BRT-TOD is discussed as a concept of BRT metropolis in context of the urbanization of Swedish towns and cities.  TOD is defined morphologically as public transport cities. A public transport city is a city that in its development adapted to specific public transportation systems. TOD is nothing new in Europe or Sweden. To find regularities of the effect of public transportation systems on cities I do a historical overview of the Swedish towns and cities. In the end the position of bus and BRT, public transport cities and TOD and possibilities of future urban transformation of the smaller and larger Swedish cities towards BRT metropolises are discussed in context of today’s “‘system’ of automobility” and widespread car society and the emerging knowledge society and its postmodern fringes of urbanization. / <p>QC 20130917</p>

This study investigates the institutional learning from attempts at securing affordable housing inclusion within Transit-Oriented Developments (TOD) through institutional change in Reykjavík, Iceland. As Reykjavík embarks on the ambitious City Line project, a bus-rapid transit network aimed at sustainably shaping urban growth, ensuring affordable housing near transit stations has become critical. Past attempts to achieve housing affordability have fallen short since Reykjavík still, to this day, experiences a great lack of affordable housing. Thus, this research employs an institutional learning framework to explore the barriers to and opportunities for ensuring affordable housing in TODs. Through expert interviews and document analysis, the study’s findings highlight the institutional challenges hindering the realisation of affordable housing goals within TODs. These include the vagueness of upper-level policies and terminology, the influence of land ownership, and implementation gaps in planning. Additionally, the research identifies opportunities for institutional change, such as strengthening standardisation from state-level policies, including principles of transit-accessible development in the extensions and re-evaluation of the City Line network, and addressing issues of timescale alignment between the implementation of TODs and the City Line. The study contributes to the limited Icelandic literature on institutional analysis in urban planning and offers ideas for enhancing social inclusivity and housing accessibility for Reykjavík’s future transit communities.

土地使用與交通運輸在都市模式中，具有密切的相互影響關係，而土地使用與交通運輸的連結，依其連結的型態不斷地演變，形塑出不同的都市模式，也產生不同的連結效益與衝擊，其中汽車導向發展（AOD）與大眾運輸導向發展（TOD）為當今全球之主要都市模式型態，但諸多的研究也指出AOD都市模式在土地使用與交通運輸的連結上，產生的負面衝擊大過於正面效益，因此全球許多大都市與台灣都市皆企圖演變成TOD都市模式，然而各大都市要如何透過土地使用與交通運輸有效益的連結，以演變出適宜的TOD都市模式，首先，除了瞭解各種都市模式的分類基礎之外，尚需一套都市整體面的效益體系，以監控都市模式的演變，並評估出有效益的TOD模式演變策略，然而，當前國內、外諸多的研究中，卻缺乏此一關鍵議題的深入探討。據此，本研究探討都市模式的分類指標，以供台灣都市評估現今的都市模式與研擬台灣都市演變成TOD都市模式的相關策略，繼而建構一套可以監控台灣都市演變成TOD都市模式的效益體系，以期台灣都市能有效益地演變成TOD都市模式。 本研究首先分析土地使用與交通運輸如何透過連結，在複雜理論及相關文獻的立論下，如何演變出不同的都市模式，本研究運用計量指標設計，以全球36個城市為實證對象，建立出一套UTLC都市模式的分類指標，以瞭解當今各大都市在土地使用與交通運輸連結下，演變出什麼型態的都市模式，繼而探討現今都市型態要演變成TOD都市模式時，土地使用與交通運輸的連結時，產生了哪些效益，本研究運用群體決策明示結構法（GISM）與群體決策分析網絡程序法（GANP），據以評估台灣TOD都市模式效益體系，透過該效益體系評選出最具效益的TOD方案，最後，依循政策支援系統的理念，研議出土地使用與交通運輸效益連結下的都市模式發展機制。 基於上述研究內容，本研究得到如下之發現與結論： 一、都市模式演變實證分析部分：本研究設計計量指標與全球36個城市的實證分析，分類出這些城市在土地使用與交通運輸連結下的都市模式型態及其所具備之都市模式特徵，評估出台北市屬於緊密型汽車導向發展城市（AOD-S），並提出都市演變成TOD模式型態之初步策略構想，包括和諧地混合土地使用、人行導向的大眾運輸路網與都市設計、評估緊密發展的容受力總量與提高大眾運輸車站周邊土地使用強度。 二、台灣TOD都市模式效益體系建構部分：本研究設計「群體決策明示結構法（GISM）」與評分法，建立台灣TOD都市模式效益體系，該效益體系具有16個效益內涵、3個層次、35個影響關係以及5類時間動態關係，政府規劃部門可據此研擬出適宜的策略，以回饋與補強其演變的過程中，演變至TOD都市模式所欠缺的成效。 三、台灣都市演變成大眾運輸導向發展模式效益評估部分：本研究設計「群體決策分析網絡程序法（GANP）」，以台北市的都市背景為基礎，評估出TOD都市模式效益體系在網絡結構下的權重關係，繼而評選出最有效益的TOD方案，即為「提高TOD程度」，方案中的實施內容，又以提高大眾運輸搭乘率最為重要，其次分別為提高都市設計品質、提高土地使用密度與提高混合土地使用程度。 四、政策支援系統建構都市模式發展機制部分：本研究應用政策支援系統理念作為機制研擬的架構，進而發展出土地使用與交通運輸效益連結下的都市模式發展機制與配套措施，該機制具有模式分類策略、模式發展目標、效益連結策略與效益監控策略，在配套措施部分，包括特定專用區計畫、TOD實質計畫研擬、資本門改善計畫、計畫單元整體開發、開發協議與聯合開發，繼而形成有系統的「土地使用與交通運輸效益連結下的都市模式發展機制」。

都市發展固然帶動了經濟成長、生活舒適、交通便利等諸多正面效益，但隨著都市不斷向外發展之成果，卻也帶來了都市內的空間擁擠、交通壅塞、空氣汙染、生活環境惡化等現象，以及都市外的分散、無秩序蔓延發展等環境問題。為解決這些問題，都市規劃者提出大眾運輸導向發展理念。從都市化之觀點來看，發展大眾運輸導向能降低都市蔓延，提昇都市內之使用密度，減少私人運具之使用，進而降低能源消耗、改善空氣品質。然而，運輸建設具有改變土地使用模式與活動區位，進而帶動人口、產業在空間上重新分布的特性；當運輸建設的興建促使周邊都市活動頻繁時，少有研究探討到大眾運輸導向帶來的效益，是否會隨著人口、產業往捷運沿線聚集，反而使交通流量增加，進而造成空氣品質愈加惡化之問題。因此，本研究從捷運營運前後台北市空氣品質變化之觀點，以台北市433個里之1995年至2006年為研究範圍，以懸浮微粒為汙染變數，運用空間分析法和長期追蹤資料實證分析法，探討捷運、人口及產業三者對空氣品質之影響程度。 / 研究結果顯示，人口密度和就業密度對懸浮微粒濃度有顯著正向影響，因此，政府在推廣大眾運輸導向理念，鼓勵人口和產業往捷運沿線發展時，需有完善配套措施，否則將導致反效果－空氣品質的惡化。而有捷運經過之村里對懸浮微粒濃度有顯著正相關；但是分析各年度懸浮微粒可發現，台北市年平均懸浮微粒濃度下降，且隨捷運路網愈加完善，空氣品質愈好。因此，捷運建設雖造成沿線懸浮微粒濃度的上升，但卻降低了整體懸浮微粒濃度，提昇台北市空氣品質。 / Urban development is driven by economic growth, comfortable living, convenient transportation and other positive benefits. However, the results of urban development also brought crowdedness, traffic congestion, air pollution, environment degradation inside the city, and sprawl development out of the city. To solve these problems, urban planners proposed mass transit-oriented development (TOD) concept. From the perspective of urbanization, developing TOD can reduce urban sprawl, enhance the use of space inside the city, and reduce the use of cars. Further, these can decrease energy consumption and improve air quality. However, a transportation system can change the land-use patterns and redistribute the population and industries. Few studies have discussed whether the benefits of TOD will gather people and industries along the mass rapid transit (MRT), where results in the increase in traffic and more deterioration of air quality are inconclusive. Therefore, from the perspective of air quality varies over time in Taipei before and after the operation of MRT, this study uses spatial analysis and panel data analysis to investigate the impact of MRT, population and industry on air quality in 433 villages of Taipei City from 1995 to 2006. / The results show that population density and employment density have significant positive effects on the concentrations of PM10. Thus, when promoting the concept of TOD and encouraging the development of population and industry along the rapid transit, the Government should plan and implement the proper procedure; otherwise they will result in rising air pollution. The villages along the rapid transit have significant positive effects on the concentrations of PM10. However, analysis of the annual PM10 concentration can be found that the annual average has declined in Taipei City; the air quality will be better with a more extensive rapid transit network. Although the construction of transit system will cause the increase in the concentration of PM10 along the rapid transit, it has decreases the overall concentration of PM10 in Taipei City.