This thesis presents English-medium instruction (EMI) in the Swedish context, focusing on perspectives and practices in two schools. The research question is as follows: How and why is EMI offered, chosen, and practiced in the Swedish upper secondary school today? The aim is to explore the status of the educational option, the reasons for offering EMI to stakeholders, the stakeholders’ beliefs about and goals of EMI, and the implementation of EMI in the classroom. A survey of all upper secondary schools in Sweden was conducted to ascertain the spread of content teaching through a foreign language. The educational context was studied from an ecological perspective using methods based in linguistic ethnography. Language alternation, academic language, and language hierarchy were all considered. Interviews were analysed for content; and classroom language use was analysed for language choice and function. The concepts of affordance and scaffolding together with translanguaging were key. The de facto policies of the micro contexts of the schools were examined in light of the declared national policy of the macro context of Sweden. The results indicate that the option in Swedish schools has not increased, and also tends to only be EMI—not Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) or instruction through other languages. EMI is offered for prestige, an international profile, marketing potential and personal interest. EMI students are academically motivated and confident, and see the option as “fun”. 100% EMI in the lessons is not the goal or the practice. Translanguaging is abundant, but how language alternation is perceived as an affordance or not differs in the two schools. One focuses on how the languages are used while the other focuses on how much each language is used. In conclusion, the analysis suggests that a development of definitions and practices of EMI in Sweden is needed, especially in relation to language policy and language hierarchy.

This thesis presents English-medium instruction (EMI) in the Swedish context, focusing on perspectives and practices in two schools. The research question is as follows: How and why is EMI offered, chosen, and practiced in the Swedish upper secondary school today? The aim is to explore the status of the educational option, the reasons for offering EMI to stakeholders, the stakeholders’ beliefs about and goals of EMI, and the implementation of EMI in the classroom. A survey of all upper secondary schools in Sweden was conducted to ascertain the spread of content teaching through a foreign language. The educational context was studied from an ecological perspective using methods based in linguistic ethnography. Language alternation, academic language, and language hierarchy were all considered. Interviews were analysed for content; and classroom language use was analysed for language choice and function. The concepts of affordance and scaffolding together with translanguaging were key. The de facto policies of the micro contexts of the schools were examined in light of the declared national policy of the macro context of Sweden. The results indicate that the option in Swedish schools has not increased, and also tends to only be EMI—not Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) or instruction through other languages. EMI is offered for prestige, an international profile, marketing potential and personal interest. EMI students are academically motivated and confident, and see the option as “fun”. 100% EMI in the lessons is not the goal or the practice. Translanguaging is abundant, but how language alternation is perceived as an affordance or not differs in the two schools. One focuses on how the languages are used while the other focuses on how much each language is used. In conclusion, the analysis suggests that a development of definitions and practices of EMI in Sweden is needed, especially in relation to language policy and language hierarchy.

Flerspråkig litteratur är långt ifrån ett nytt fenomen, men forskningsområdet är fortfarande mycket underutforskat. Syftet med studien är att studera språkväxling i flerspråkig lyrik sett ur ett translanguaging-perspektiv. Metoden utgörs av en analysmodell för flerspråkig skönlitteratur som är inspirerad av såväl språkvetenskapliga som litteraturvetenskapliga studier. Materialet består av totalt nio diktutdrag från tre diktsamlingar av tre olika författarskap. Resultatet visade att språkväxlingarna fyller mångahanda funktioner såsom att göra dikterna flerdimensionella, att deras form särskilt genom sina oklara språkgränser har betydelse för diktinnehållet, och att flera paralleller kan dras till tankar inom translanguaging-konceptet i fråga om effektiv kommunikation, språklig kreativitet och skapandet av ett utrymme för translanguaging. Slutsatsen är att flerspråkig lyrik är mångfacetterad med många tolkningsmöjligheter och att ett translanguaging-perspektiv gav resultatet en djupare innebörd.

The aim of this empirical study is to investigate the role of the L1 (Swedish for the purpose of this study) at upper secondary schools in Sweden, in English class. It also examines teachers’ and students’ attitudes towards the use of the L1 in the ESL classroom. The method that has been used for this thesis is a qualitative research method. In order to collect data, structured open-ended interviews were conducted. A total of eleven upper secondary students from the same school, and six upper secondary ESL teachers from four different schools, participated in this study. The results show that almost all of the participating students and teachers think that the L1 should be allowed in the classroom, as it can be used as a resource for learning. For instance, as the results demonstrate, the L1 was mainly used as a tool to clarify instructions, explain difficult terms, explain vocabulary and grammar rules, when translating, to manage discipline, and when they are socializing with each other. The majority of the participants suggest that the L1 worked as a very helpful tool in the learning process, especially in situations where students lacked understanding. However, there were also critical responses towards the use of the L1, particularly since the L1 can be easily overused. Previous research shares these latter views regarding the use of the L1 in the classroom, and confirms that it is important that learners are exposed to as much English as possible for successful language learning and development.

This ethnographically informed, qualitative study aims to investigate English teacher candidates’ attitudes towards multilingualism and translanguaging in English as a foreign language (EFL) classrooms and in the school environment. More specifically, the study intends to identify potential contributing factors to the formation of said attitudes, such as the influence of policy documents and of the teacher training program on the perception of the future working environment. The data was collected with semi-structured interviews; the participants were four teacher candidates, two females and two males, enrolled in the teacher education program in a Swedish university. In addition, at the time of data collection, all participants had completed most of the teacher education program, an aspect that increased the relevance of their responses, since they would soon be active teachers in the Swedish school system. Overall, the participants expressed positive attitudes towards multilingualism and translanguaging in a school environment. However, some hesitation in their answers was detected when they are asked how they would work with multilingual students in their future practice. These findings suggest that, if teacher candidates receive adequate education to approach their future working environment with confidence they would be better equipped to provide adequate pedagogical support to students whose L1 is other than Swedish. This would foster positive attitudes towards multilingualism and translanguaging and would, consequently, lead to an improvement in the academic results of multilingual students. The teacher candidates’ increased awareness of the benefits and challenges of multilingualism and their ability to put into practice the general principles they learn at university would benefit from changes in the teacher training program, in the curriculum compiled by the National Agency of Education, and in the national pedagogical approach to language learning.

Even though English should mainly be used in the EFL-classroom according to the Swedish national curriculum, some recent scholars have argued that a judicious use of the students’ L1 by the teachers in some particular situations may benefit the learning environment there. From this context, this thesis examines what research says about in what particular situations the L1 is used by teachers in upper secondary EFL-classrooms as well as the teachers’ and the students’ attitudes towards this practice. The method used was a systematic literature review, where seven articles from all across the globe were analyzed, compared and synthesized. The results show that the L1 was mainly used by the teachers when managing discipline, when explaining grammar and when teaching vocabulary. However, the articles did not conclude how the L1 could be used strategically by the teachers. Concerning the teachers’ and students’ attitudes, the majority of these were positive towards L1 use by the teacher in the above mentioned situations. However, the teachers were not aware of how the L1 could be used by them in a judicious and a strategic way. Lastly, it can be concluded that more research is needed on how the L1 can be used more strategically by the teachers as well as on the students’ perspective on this.

This thesis aims to learn about opportunities for and challenges to the development of multilingual literacies in three forms of education in Sweden and Australia that teach or draw on immigrant languages.  In Sweden mother tongue instruction and multilingual study guidance are in focus and in Australia, a community language school. Taking an ecological approach to the research sites, the thesis investigates how language ideologies, organization of the form of education and language practices impact on the development of multilingual literacies. A range of linguistic ethnographic data including 75 lesson observations, 48 interviews, field notes and photographs has been analyzed against the theoretical backdrop of the continua of biliteracy (Hornberger, 1989; Hornberger &amp; Skilton-Sylvester, 2000), heteroglossia (Bakhtin, 1981) and emerging theories of translanguaging (García &amp; Li, 2014) to investigate the questions. The thesis ties together the results of four interlocking case studies investigating the above-mentioned forms of education. Study I analyses the syllabus for mother tongue instruction in Sweden and finds that while aligning with the overall values of the curriculum for the compulsory school, a hidden curriculum constrains implementation. In Study II, multilingual practices during multilingual study guidance in Sweden are analysed, and demonstrate how translanguaging helps recently arrived students reach the learning goals of subjects in the Swedish curriculum. In study III, systematic analysis of indexicals reveals contrasting language narratives about language and language development in and around a Vietnamese community language school in Australia. Study IV focuses on mother tongue instruction in Sweden and through analysis of audio-recordings of lessons, interviews and field notes, finds three dimensions of linguistic diversity infuse the subject.  Opportunities for the development of multilingual literacies are created when there is equal access to spaces for developing literacies in different immigrant languages, within which language ideologies that recognize and build on the heteroglossic diversity of students’ linguistic repertoires dynamically inform the organization of education and classroom practices. Challenges are created when monoglossic ideologies restrict access to or ignore linguistic diversity and when there is a lack of dynamic engagement with implementation and organization. Basing organization, and classroom strategies around the linguistic reality of the students and the genres they need, benefits the development of multilingual literacies in both settings and can help students become resourceful language users (Pennycook, 2012b, 2014). / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Manuscript.</p>

The objective of this thesis is to examine how language, gestures and physical artefacts are used in science classes with emergent bilingual students who do not share the same minority language as their classmates or teachers. The purpose is to contribute to findings that can enhance emergent bilingual students’ learning in science. The data consist of classroom observations in one 3rd grade (9–10 years old) and one 7th grade (13–14 years old) science class. In addition, the students in the 7th grade were interviewed. Whole-class instruction was carried out monolingually in Swedish. The students typically made meaning of the activities without any language limitations during conversations following an initiation, response and evaluation pattern (IRE). However, during longer conversations the students’ language repertoire in Swedish frequently limited their possibilities to express themselves. During group-work activities, students with the same minority language worked together and used both of their languages. One strategy used among the students to overcome language limitations was translating unfamiliar words into their minority language. In general, this supported the students’ learning in science. Occasionally, the students made incorrect translations of scientific concepts. The interviews with the students demonstrated how monolingual exams may limit emergent bilingual students’ achievements in science. When students’ language proficiency limited their possibility to express themselves, the students showed what they meant by using gestures. This resulted in the continuation of the lessons as both other students and teachers drew on the used gestures to talk about the science content. The physical artefacts implied that the students experienced the science content by actually seeing it, which the teacher then drew on to introduce how the phenomena or process in question could be expressed in scientific language. When students’ proficiency in the language of instruction limited their possibilities to make meaning, using physical artefacts enabled them to experience unfamiliar words being related to the science content and learn what they mean. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 4: Submitted.</p>

Many studies show that language learners see the benefits of using their first language in order to learn second or subsequent languages, while they also see some disadvantages. This reflects dominant ideas in language learning about the importance of keeping languages separate. The present study examines translanguaging, a strategy in which learners are encouraged to use their entire linguistic repertoires during language learning. To this aim, data are examined from Swedish learners (n= 168) in grades 7-9 to investigate their attitudes and perceptions towards translanguaging in the EFL classroom, and to shed light on the roles of age and proficiency in constraining them. The data was collected by means of a questionnaire and a proficiency test in order to measure the participants’ proficiency in English. Unlike the mixed views reported in previous studies, the learners investigated here had a positive view of translanguaging and perceived it as beneficial to their learning. Furthermore, the findings suggest that learners often used Swedish for specific functions, especially explaining grammar and vocabulary, clarifying tasks and instructions, comparing the languages and asking questions. This was even more so for low proficiency learners, who used translanguaging more for both practical and social purposes. On the other hand, higher proficiency learners used less Swedish and viewed translanguaging as less helpful. These learners also reported that their teachers used more Swedish in the classroom compared with their less proficient peers. It was also found that learners showed a greater tendency to use translanguaging with increasing age, although this might have been due to differences between teachers and their individual practices. / Många studier visar att elever ser fördelarna med att använda sitt förstaspråk för att lära sig andra eller efterföljande språk, medan de också ser några nackdelar. Detta återspeglar dominerande idéer i språkinlärningen om vikten av att hålla språken åtskilda. I den här studien undersöks transspråkande (translanguaging), en strategi där eleven uppmuntras att använda hela sin språkliga repertoar under språkinlärningen. För detta ändamål undersöks data från svenska elever (n = 168) i årskurs 7-9 för att undersöka deras attityder och uppfattningar kring transspråkande i det EFL-klassrummet och för att belysa hur faktorerna ålder och färdighet påverkar dem. Uppgifterna samlades in med hjälp av en enkät och ett färdighetstest för att mäta deltagarnas färdigheter på engelska. Till skillnad från de blandade åsikter som rapporterats i tidigare studier hade de studenter som undersöktes i denna studien en positiv syn på transspråkande och uppfattade det som fördelaktigt för deras lärande. Dessutom tyder resultaten på att eleverna ofta använde svenska för specifika funktioner; särskilt att förklara grammatik och nya ord, klargöra uppgifter och instruktioner, jämföra språk och ställa frågor. Detta var ännu mer för elever med låg färdighet, som använde transspråkande mer för både praktiska och sociala ändamål. Å andra sidan använde elever med högre kompetens mindre svenska och betraktade transspråkande som mindre användbart. Dessa elever rapporterade också att deras lärare använde mer svenska i klassrummet jämfört med sina kamrater med lägre färdighet. Studien pekar också på att eleverna visade en större tendens att använda transspråkande med ökande ålder, även om detta kan ha berott på skillnader mellan lärare och deras individuella metoder.

This study aims to investigate four English teachers’ perspectives on teaching English to students with a limited proficiency in Swedish. The study was conducted through interviews with four English teachers in secondary and upper secondary school.  The study reveals that the teachers rely much on the Swedish language in their teaching, in textbooks, translation and explanations, for instance. However, the teachers in the study show awareness of the fact that some of their students do not always follow the Swedish instructions and explanations. Therefore, the four teachers solve this issue in different ways, such as translanguaging, letting the students help each other, picture support, etc. Moreover, the study reveals an ongoing tension between English and Swedish for newly arrived students. These students need to focus on the Swedish language. Therefore, the English lessons sometimes function to support the Swedish acquisition as much as learning English. The study also shows that the teachers find it important to have a functioning first language to learn other languages, and that languages can support each other in language acquisition.