This study investigates six theoretical approaches offered as solutions to the paradox of the heap (sorites paradox), a logic puzzle dating back to the ancient Greek philosopher Eubulides. Those considered are: Incoherence Theory, Epistemic Theory, Supervaluation Theory, Many-Valued Logic, Fuzzy Logic, and Non-Classical Semantics. After critically examining all of these, it is concluded that none of the attempts to explain the sorites are fully adequate, and the paradox remains unresolved. / Philosophy / M.A. (Philosophy)

模糊是語言的主要特色之一，這與法律語言的終極目標—精確恰恰相反。在追求精確的過程中，在法律制度裡的某字或某術語該做何解釋，往往有許多爭議。法官如何在模糊與精確當中取得平衡?又如何確保每項法律公正地適用於每個人與每起個案?本文試圖探討這兩個極端—模糊與精確—如何交織與競合，從法律語言學的觀點對爭議個案提供解釋，並進一步解決法律制度中各種語言詮釋的問題，其中以刑法的語言為主要研究標的。為了闡釋文字的意義，本文嘗試以框架語意學、檢查表理論和原型理論來架構出法律語言的框架。本文之另一項目的是要觀察刑法法條中的語言現象，是否能反映出刑法的精神與特質。 / Vagueness is one of the major characteristics of language, which happens to be contradictory to the ultimate goal of legal language—precision. In the process of pursuing precision, there are a variety of disputes over what interpretations words or terms in the legal system should be made. How do judges strike the balance between vagueness (uncertainty) and precision (certainty) and affirm that every rule be justly applied to every individual and every case? This research attempts to explore how these two extremes interweave and compete and to provide explanations for some controversial cases and offer a perspective from forensic linguistics to solve the problems among the various interpretations of the language used in the legal system, in this case, the Criminal Law. To elucidate the meaning of words, this study tries to construct the frame of legal language with linguistic approaches such as frame semantics, checklist theory, and prototype theory. Another objective of the research is to see whether the linguistic phenomena observed in the system can reflect and convey the spirits and essences behind the Criminal Law.

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In vielen Lebenssituationen müssen Menschen auf der Grundlage von vagen Informationen Zustände analysieren, bewerten, vorhersagen und entscheiden. Vagheit ist ein zentrales Charakteristikum der menschlichen Sprache, da viele Worte keine ganz klaren Abgrenzungen haben sondern fließend ineinander übergehen. Wie alt ist z.B. ein junger Mann? Und wo liegt die Altersgrenze, die junge von alten Männern trennt? Die meisten Menschen werden auf diese Frage übereinstimmend antworten, dass man die Altersgrenze nicht präzise festlegen kann und dass jung und alt Konzepte sind, die beispielsweise vom Standpunkt oder Kontext abhängig sind und graduell ineinander übergehen. Der graduelle Übergang verhindert eine klare Unterscheidung der unscharfen Aussagen (junge versus alte Männer) und stellt Menschen vor die Aufgabe, mit dieser Ungenauigkeit umzugehen. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschäftigt sich mit der Vagheit sprachlicher Ausdrücke (linguistische Terme) und hat zum Ziel, eine konsistente fuzzy Methodik zur Erfassung der Begriffsbedeutungen zu entwickeln, sie empirisch zu überprüfen und die Ergebnisse auf praktische Fragestellungen (z.B. die Nutzung in verbalen Fragebogenskalen) anzuwenden. Hierbei werden die linguistischen Terme als unscharfe Mengen (fuzzy sets) konzeptualisiert und mathematisch mit fuzzy Zugehörigkeitsfunktionen beschrieben. Die Formalisierung der Terme ermöglicht eine Objektivierung und bildet die Grundlage für die Nutzung in computerbasierten Systemen (z.B. Decision Support Systemen). Folgende zentrale Punkte sind Gegenstand der Arbeit: (1) Die Vorstellung eines zweistufigen Verfahrens zur Übersetzung von linguistischen Termen in formalisierte Beschreibungen (fuzzy Zugehörigkeitsfunktionen) und dessen empirische Erprobung anhand von Wahrscheinlichkeits- und Häufigkeitsausdrücken: Die in der ersten Stufe des Verfahrens erfassten numerischen Schätzwerte für die Begriffe werden in der zweiten Stufe mit fuzzy Zugehörigkeitsfunktionen des Potentialtyps modelliert. In zwei Studien konnte gezeigt werden, dass diese Funktionen ein geeignetes Mittel zur Beschreibung der Terme sind und sich durch die Nutzung der fuzzy Methodik neue Möglichkeiten zu einer systematischen Erforschung linguistischer Terme ergeben. (2) Der Transfer der durch die fuzzy Übersetzungsprozedur gewonnenen Grundlagenergebnisse in anwendungsorientierte psychologische Forschungsbereiche: Die vorgeschlagenen Methodik wird zur Auswahl und Evaluation von sprachlichen Begriffen für Fragebogenskalen mit verbalen Antwortkategorien genutzt. Anhand der verbalen Antwortskala eines Beispielfragebogens (COPSOQ) konnte in zwei Studien gezeigt werden, dass die Abstände zwischen den Antwortkategorien der originalen Skala nicht gleich sind. Die fehlende Äquidistanz führt dazu, dass die Voraussetzung für eine parametrisch-statistische Auswertung der Daten nicht gegeben ist und beispielsweise keine Mittelwerte berechnet werden dürften. Es zeigte sich ebenso, dass die erarbeitete fuzzy Methodik die Auswahl besser geeigneter äquidistanter Terme ermöglicht. (3) Die Vorstellung und Nutzung der fuzzy Methodik für die Auswertung von unscharfen Daten, die aus den Antworten verbaler Fragebogenskalen stammen: Hierbei werden die fuzzy Auswertungsergebnisse mit den Ergebnissen der herkömmlichen statistischen Auswertungsprozedur verglichen. In einer Studie, in der ein Fragebogen zur Messung von chronischem Stress (TICS) exemplarisch untersucht wurde, konnte gezeigt werden, dass die fehlende Äquidistanz der Antwortkategorien zu einer Verzerrung der statistischen Ergebnisauswertung und damit auch zur Fehlinterpretation der Stressergebnisse führt. Die vorgestellte fuzzy Methodik hingegen beweist sich als inhaltlich konsistente Alternative. Abschließend werden in der vorliegenden Arbeit die Ergebnisse der Studien zusammenfassend diskutiert, und es erfolgt ein Ausblick auf weitere Forschungs- und Anwendungsmöglichkeiten der fuzzy Methodik.

This study investigates six theoretical approaches offered as solutions to the paradox of the heap (sorites paradox), a logic puzzle dating back to the ancient Greek philosopher Eubulides. Those considered are: Incoherence Theory, Epistemic Theory, Supervaluation Theory, Many-Valued Logic, Fuzzy Logic, and Non-Classical Semantics. After critically examining all of these, it is concluded that none of the attempts to explain the sorites are fully adequate, and the paradox remains unresolved. / Philosophy, Practical and Systematic Theology / M.A. (Philosophy)

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T19:04:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 6824.pdf: 22060515 bytes, checksum: bde19feb7a6e296214aebe081f2d09de (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-12-07 / Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais / O data warehouse espacial (DWE) é um banco de dados multidimensional integrado e volumoso que armazena dados espaciais e dados convencionais. Já o processamento analítico espacial online (SOLAP) permite consultar o DWE, tanto pela seleção de dados espaciais que satisfazem um relacionamento topológico, quanto pela agregação dos dados espaciais. Deste modo, DWE e SOLAP beneficiam o suporte a tomada de decisão. As aplicações de DWE e SOLAP abordam majoritarimente fenômenos representados por dados espaciais exatos, ou seja, que assumem localizações e fronteiras bem definidas. Contudo, tais aplicações negligenciam dados espaciais afetados por imperfeições, tais como a vagueza espacial, a qual interfere na identificação precisa de um objeto e de seus vizinhos. Um objeto espacial vago não tem sua fronteira ou seu interior precisamente definidos. Além disso, é composto por partes que certamente pertencem a ele e partes que possivelmente pertencem a ele. Apesar de inúmeros fenômenos do mundo real serem caracterizados pela vagueza espacial, na literatura consultada não se identificaram trabalhos que considerassem a vagueza espacial no projeto de DWE e nem para consultar o DWE. Tal limitação motivou a elaboração desta tese de doutorado, a qual introduz os conceitos de DWE vago e de SOLAP vago. Um DWE vago é um DWE que armazena dados espaciais vagos, enquanto que SOLAP vago provê os meios para consultar o DWE vago. Nesta tese, o projeto de DWE vago é abordado e as principais contribuições providas são: (i) o modelo conceitual VSCube que viabiliza a criação de um cubos de dados multidimensional para representar o esquema conceitual de um DWE vago; (ii) o modelo conceitual VSMultiDim que permite criar um diagrama para representar o esquema conceitual de um DWE vago; (iii) diretrizes para o projeto lógico do DWE vago e de suas restrições de integridade, e para estender a linguagem SQL visando processar as consultas de SOLAP vago no DWE vago; e (iv) o índice VSB-index que aprimora o desempenho do processamento de consultas no DWE vago. A aplicabilidade dessas contribuições é demonstrada em dois estudos de caso no domínio da agricultura, por meio da criação de esquemas conceituais de DWE vago, da transformação dos esquemas conceituais em esquemas lógicos de DWE vago, e do processamento de consultas envolvendo as regiões vagas do DWE vago. / Spatial data warehouses (SDW) and spatial online analytical processing (SOLAP) enhance decision making by enabling spatial analysis combined with multidimensional analytical queries. A SDW is an integrated and voluminous multidimensional database containing both conventional and spatial data. SOLAP allows querying SDWs with multidimensional queries that select spatial data that satisfy a given topological relationship and that aggregate spatial data. Existing SDW and SOLAP applications mostly consider phenomena represented by spatial data having exact locations and sharp boundaries. They neglect the fact that spatial data may be affected by imperfections, such as spatial vagueness, which prevents distinguishing an object from its neighborhood. A vague spatial object does not have a precisely defined boundary and/or interior. Thus, it may have a broad boundary and a blurred interior, and is composed of parts that certainly belong to it and parts that possibly belong to it. Although several real-world phenomena are characterized by spatial vagueness, no approach in the literature addresses both spatial vagueness and the design of SDWs nor provides multidimensional analysis over vague spatial data. These shortcomings motivated the elaboration of this doctoral thesis, which addresses both vague spatial data warehouses (vague SDWs) and vague spatial online analytical processing (vague SOLAP). A vague SDW is a SDW that comprises vague spatial data, while vague SOLAP allows querying vague SDWs. The major contributions of this doctoral thesis are: (i) the Vague Spatial Cube (VSCube) conceptual model, which enables the creation of conceptual schemata for vague SDWs using data cubes; (ii) the Vague Spatial MultiDim (VSMultiDim) conceptual model, which enables the creation of conceptual schemata for vague SDWs using diagrams; (iii) guidelines for designing relational schemata and integrity constraints for vague SDWs, and for extending the SQL language to enable vague SOLAP; (iv) the Vague Spatial Bitmap Index (VSB-index), which improves the performance to process queries against vague SDWs. The applicability of these contributions is demonstrated in two applications of the agricultural domain, by creating conceptual schemata for vague SDWs, transforming these conceptual schemata into logical schemata for vague SDWs, and efficiently processing queries over vague SDWs.

In this thesis, I argue that the treatment/enhancement distinction that is central to the ethical debate concerning germline genome editing and CRISPR is too vague to be ethically and normatively guiding. The problem of vagueness is twofold, being both a semantic and epistemic issue. This vagueness creates borderline cases, cases that cannot be properly defined as either treatment or enhancement, I call this The Borderline Cases Argument. These borderline cases enable a slippery slope towards eugenic practices, radical enhancement and dangerous applications of CRISPR. The distinction therefore fails to be action guiding as it cannot distinguish treatment from enhancement as well as failing to correspond to what is genuinely morally problematic with germline genome editing and not, I call this The Argument of Missing the Point. In using the treatment/enhancement distinction we therefore risk losing control over how CRISPR is used and for what purposes.

[pt] A filosofia do direito se preocupa tradicionalmente com a análise de problemas interpretativos sob a perspectiva do juiz. Uma mudança de perspectiva pode ser benéfica: é possível utilizar de conceitos de filosofia da linguagem para aprimorar a redação de textos normativos, lançando nova luz sobre as questões filosóficas persistentes sobre a interpretação jurídica. O presente trabalho analisa os conceitos de ambiguidade e vagueza, em suas diversas formas, e oferece uma divisão entre tipos de vagueza instrumentalmente desejáveis e indesejáveis para a consecução dos valores perseguidos pelo direito. Após, é apresentado um argumento que pretende mostrar que textos normativos são atos de fala ilocucionários. Finalmente, o trabalho busca mostrar como a linguagem ordinária pode ser usada para aumentar a clareza de textos normativos. A hipótese de que essa prática pode gerar benefícios é testada e confirmada a partir de um questionário distribuído a juristas e não juristas. Na conclusão, argumenta-se que a aplicação das conclusões filosóficas anteriores a textos normativos pode aumentar o grau de efetividade e transparência do direito e resolver parte dos problemas de interpretação que permanecem não solucionados após décadas de debate filosófico, como ocorre com as discussões sobre intencionalismo e textualismo. / [en] Philosophy of law is traditionally preoccupied with the analysis of interpretative problems under the judge s point of view. A change in perspective might be beneficial: it is possible to use concepts from philosophy of language to enhance the redaction of normative texts, shedding new light on persistent philosophical questions about interpretation in law. The present thesis analyzes the concepts of ambiguity and vagueness in its multiple forms, offering a division between kinds of instrumentally desirable and undesirable vagueness to the values pursued by law. Afterwards, it presents an argument that intends to show that normative texts are ilocucionary speech acts. Finally, the thesis seeks to show ways in which ordinary language may be used to create clearer normative texts. The hypothesis that this practice may generate benefits is tested and confirmed by a questionnaire distributed to both lawyers and laymen. In its conclusion, it is argued that the application of these previous philosophical conclusions to normative texts may increase the degree of effectiveness and transparency of law and solve part of the problems of interpretation that remain unsolved after decades of philosophical debate, as happens with discussions about intentionalism and textualism.

In this dissertation, we address the problem of vagueness in traditional legal contracts by presenting novel methodologies that aid in the paradigm shift from traditional legal contracts to smart contracts. We discuss key enabling technologies that assist in converting the traditional natural language legal contract, which is full of vague words, phrases, and sentences to the blockchain-based precise smart contract, including metrics evaluation during our conversion experiment. To address the challenge of this contract-transformation process, we propose four novel proof-of-concept approaches that take vagueness and different possible interpretations into significant consideration, where we experiment with popular vendors' existing vague legal contracts. We show through experiments that our proposed methodologies are able to study the degree of vagueness in every interpretation and demonstrate which vendor's translated-smart contract can be more accurate, optimized, and have a lesser degree of vagueness. We also incorporated the method of fuzzy logic inside the blockchain-based smart contract, to successfully model the semantics of linguistic expressions. Our experiments and results show that the smart contract with the higher degrees of truth can be very complex technically but more accurate at the same time. By using fuzzy logic inside a smart contract, it becomes easier to solve the problem of contractual ambiguities as well as expedite the process of claiming compensation when implemented in a blockchain-based smart contract.