The present study investigated the directional relationship between practicing school counselors’ level of altruism to their degree of burnout. Specifically, this investigation tested the hypothesized directional relationship that practicing school counselors scoring at higher levels of altruism would have lower levels of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, personal accomplishment). In addition, the investigation examined the relationship between the practicing school counselors’ levels altruism and burnout and their reported demographic information (e.g., age, school counseling level, self-reported levels of wellness). A thorough review of the literature is presented with supporting empirical research for each construct (altruism and burnout). A descriptive, correlational research design (Frankel et al., 2012) was employed to investigate the research hypothesis and exploratory questions. The research hypothesis was analyzed using structural equation modeling (SEM). More specifically, multiple regression, path analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis (Ullman, 2007) were conducted. The exploratory research questions were examined using: descriptive statistics, Spearman’s rho correlations, multiple regressions, Kruskal-Wallis test and Mann Whitney U test (Pallant, 2010). The results are reviewed and compared to existing research in the field. Furthermore, limitations of the current study are explained, and recommendations for future research are provided. Finally, implications of the study regarding professional school counseling and counselor education are discussed. The overall sample for this study is 437 practicing school counselors (ASCA members, n = 344; non-ASCA members, n = 93). The results of the study support that school counselors with higher levels of altruism have lower levels of burnout. The findings of this study show two dimensions of altruistic motivation: (1) positive future expectations and (2) self-efficacy v contribute significantly to all dimensions of burnout (emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and personal accomplishment). Additionally, a significant relationship was found between altruism and burnout and self-reported wellness.

Forskning inom altruism och egoism är omfattande, båda sidorna hävdar att det finns bevis för deras sak. Syftet med undersökningen var att förstå motivationsfaktorer gällande hjälpande, samt en inblick angående relationer och typen av hjälpande. Deltagarna bestod av 85 studenter, åldrarna 19–50, 65 var kvinnor. Databearbetning var inspirerad av empirisk metodik, varje berättelse meningskoncentrerades. Främlingar var typen av relation som mest blev hjälpt. Vardaglig fysisk hjälp var den vanligaste typen av hjälpande. Egoistiska motiv som låg på 40% visade sig vara mer dominerande än altruistiska motiv som låg på 20%, resterande 40% var neutrala. Andelen av de 40% berodde på att egoistiska motivationsfaktorer förklarades som känsla av skyldighet att hjälpa, känna sig behövd och en känsla av att må bra. Altruistiska motivationsfaktorer förklarades som instinkt och empatiska tankebanor. Studien tyder på att egoistiska och altruistiska motivationsfaktorer existerar, dock krävs mer forskning inom dessa ämnen

<p>Theories that engender fundamental transformations in our world view seldom come perfect from the outset for two reasons. First, the empirical discoveries and theoretical framework necessary for their full explanatory efficacy are often not yet in place. Secondly, as a consequence of the first, some of the auxiliary theories and assumptions they rely upon are often antiquated and erroneous. For these reasons, anomalies are frequent in scientific theories. In this thesis, I discuss some of the major scientific anomalies, including particularly, the paradox of altruism. I suggest that the paradox of altruism arises because one of the most fundamental Mendelian genetic principles is misapplied. I show that today’s explanatory models err in supposing altruism and selfishness to be genetic allelomorphs. The supposition is inconsistent with the field data on altruism, and entails a logical inconsistency in accounting for the evolution of altruism. Largely, the models that purport to resolve the paradox hinge on the conditional expression of the altruistic gene, a move which I argue contradicts the theoretical assumption that engenders the paradox in the first place. I demonstrate from the empirical data that altruism and selfishness are rather plastic phenotypic expressions of a single genotype. And by supplanting the standard neo-Darwinian assumptions with the principle of phenotypic plasticity, I provide a parsimonious account of the evolution and maintenance of altruism which entails no paradox.</p> / Master of Arts (MA)

No / This is a reply to Sue Mitchell and Francisco J. Eiroa-Orosa’s ‘Love your enemy.’ The latter seeks to explore the self-transcending potential of altruistic behaviour through a dialogical paradigm. It not only initiates fresh discussion on the subject of altruism, but also advances new discussion on Bakhtinian aesthetics. For the continuation of this forward momentum, we suggest a more nuanced approach to the placement of the ‘researcher’ within the applied methodological matrix. Similarly, we also advocate for the synthesising of research tools, often appropriated by theological studies, into said methodological matrix. This is a reply to: Mitchell, Sue and Eiroa-Orosa, Francisco J. 2018. “Love your enemy? An aesthetic discourse analysis of self-transcendence in values-motivated altruism.” Global Discourse https://doi.org/10.1080/23269995.2018. 1511766

Sveriges föreningsliv bygger till största delen på frivilliga insatser och en stor del av Sveriges befolkning är mycket aktiva i föreningar runt om i landet. Det satsas även stora summor pengar årligen till de ideella organisationerna. Studier visar att motiven till frivilligt socialt arbete har förändrats. Från att ha varit med avsikt att göra något för någon annan till att idag handla om att individen vill ha någonting tillbaka för sitt engagemang. Syftet med studien är att beskriva och analysera vad som motiverar människor till att engagera sig i frivilligt socialt arbete. Frågorna som ställdes utgick från vilken betydelse altruismen, egoismen och individualiseringen har för att motivera människor till att engagera sig i frivilligt socialt arbete? Studien har en kvalitativ insats. Datainsamling har skett genom intervjuer. 3 intervjuer i en kyrka och 3 intervjuer i en idrottsförening. Materialet har analyserats genom en empirikopplad analys där teorin SDT använts. Resultatet visar att positiv feedback, social samhörighet, självbestämmande och viljan till ett medborgerligt engagemang är viktiga för motivationen. Det finns altruistiska motiv som är centrala i studien men det finns även tydliga kopplingar till egoistiska och individuella motiv. Betydelsen av dessa diskuteras i studien.

This dissertation consists of three essays. Essay 1: Lobbying, Information, and Private and Social Welfare. Lobbying is potentially welfare improving if it is a form of information transmission. This essay studies when and for whom this is the case. In the model, a government (G) can redistribute income between two interest groups (A and B). Only one of them (A) has the opportunity to lobby. Lobbying is understood as A’s acquiring and strategically revealing policy-relevant information to G. Among the results is that A may be worse off as a consequence of lobbying while B is better off. It can also be the case that lobbying makes both the active and passive interest groups and the government all worse off. Essay 2: Are we better off if our politicians know how the economy works? This essay concerns public policy and welfare in a society where citizens’ preferences over public policy depend, in varying degrees, on some unknown state of the world. That is, people are heterogeneous with respect to their responsiveness to the unknown state. Public policy is decided on by a policymaker who is elected among the citizens by majority vote. Given this framework it is asked whether the citizens would be better off if the amount of uncertainty that the policymaker is facing were smaller. Among the results is that those who are sufficiently responsive to the unknown state may be worse off if the variance of the stochastic variable decreases. Essay 3: Incomplete information in the Samaritan’s dilemma: The dilemma (almost) vanishes. Suppose that an altruistic person, A, is willing to transfer resources to a second person, B, if B comes upon hard times. If B anticipates that A will act in this manner, B will save "too little" from both agents’ point of view. This is the Samaritan’s dilemma. The mechanism in the dilemma has been employed in an extensive literature, addressing a wide range of both normative and positive issues. However, this essay shows that the undersaving result is not robust to the assumption that information is complete: by adding an arbitrarily small amount of uncertainty one can sustain an equilibrium outcome that is arbitrarily close to ex post incentive efficiency. One may also sustain outcomes with oversaving. / Diss. Stockholm : Handelshögsk., 1998

We extend the model of Delfgaauw and Dur (2010) to analyze the occupation choice with the presence of the public service motivation. When the workers are purely altruistic, the lower is the acceptance rate of job application to the public sector, the higher is the possibility to have applicants with better managerial ability. In addition, when the friction cost of restarting job searching is higher, the applicants with less managerial ability tend to apply the private sector jobs from the beginning. On the other hand, when the workers are impurely altruistic, the applicants with less managerial ability will not self-select into the public sector. Finally, the highest social welfare level may not be reached if the acceptance rate in the public sector is not one hundred percent.

Preventivmedel för kvinnor innefattar en betydande andel biverkningar. Hittills har män inte upplevt några allvarliga biverkningar av de testade preventivmedlen för män, trots detta är det biverkningarna som stoppat preventivmedel för män från att lanseras på marknaden. I denna studie argumenteras för att en möjlig förklaring till detta ligger i skilda riskuppfattningar om preventivmedel för män och kvinnor. Studien undersöker riskuppfattningar om preventivmedel samt hur individers egenskaper kan påverka denna riskuppfattning. Studien analyserar hur altruism, riskbenägenhet, föreställningar om könsroller och kön påverkar riskuppfattningar om preventivmedel för män respektive för kvinnor. För att undersöka detta utfördes en enkätundersökning bland 413 studenter vid Linköpings universitet. Respondenterna fick uppge sina uppfattningar om risker kring preventivmedel för antingen män eller kvinnor, samt förhålla sig till påståenden och besvara frågor om altruism, riskbenägenhet och könsroller. Vilka preventivmedel (för män eller kvinnor) en respondent tillfrågades att beakta bestämdes slumpmässigt. Datamaterialet analyserades sedan med hjälp av linjär regressionsanalys. Resultaten visar att respondenterna uppfattar biverkningarna från preventivmedel som värre för kvinnor än för män, där riskbenägenheten hos respondenterna spelade störst roll i deras riskuppfattning. Risksökande och mer altruistiska individer upplever riskerna som större medan den föreställningar om könsroller hade en liten påverkan på resultatet. Avslutningsvis visar resultaten en viss könsbias och den största skillnaden mellan könen är att män som är mindre altruistiska ser mindre risker med preventivmedel medan kvinnor som är mer altruistiska ser mer risker med preventivmedel. / Contraception for women entail a considerable amount of side effects. Even though men so far have not experience serious side effects from the tested contraceptive for men. These side effects have proven to inhibit the availability of male contraception on the market. In this study argumentation is made that one possible explanation for this dwells in a difference in risk perception between contraception for men versus for women, were side effects for contraception for men is preceded as more severe. The aim of this study is to evaluate four traits in individuals which arguably is affecting this risk perception, these are traditional views of gender roles, altruism, risk attitude and a difference in perceptions between genders. To test this, a survey with 413 respondents was conducted at Linköping University. The respondents had to report their perceptions about risks regarding contraception for either men or women, as well as respond to statements about altruism, risk attitudes and traditional gender roles. It was randomized what kind of contraception (for men or for women) the respondents answered. The data material was analyzed through linear regressions. The results show that the respondents, both the women and the men, perceive side effects for contraceptive for women as more severe were their risk attitude have the biggest effect on their risk perception. Furthermore, individuals who are more altruistic and risk seeking perceive larger risks with contraception while the individuals view on traditional gender roles have negligible effect on the respondent’s risk perception. A gender bias dwells in the respondents answer and the biggest difference between the genders is that men who are less altruistic see less risks with contraception while women who are more altruistic see more risks with contraception.

Studien syftar till att undersöka sociala entreprenörers attityd till risk och om riskattityden har något samband med karaktärsdraget altruism. Tidigare forskning jämför traditionella entreprenörer med sociala entreprenörer i relation till risk och har funnit olika resultat. En av anledningarna är att risk är komplext och kan undersökas på olika sätt. Dessutom varierar definitionen av socialt entreprenörskap mellan olika studier, områden och länder. Vår studie använder sociala entreprenörer som målgrupp utifrån en bestämd definition och tar genom en enkät reda på deras attityd till risk. Till följd av tidigare studier som riktat in sig på olika personligheter och karaktärsdrag inom vår målgrupp valde vi att studera karaktärsdraget altruism och dess påverkan på riskattityden. Studien undersöker på vilket sätt entreprenörernas grad av altruism kan vara kopplad till deras riskattityd. Insamlade data från 100 sociala entreprenörer används som underlag för Spearman r korrelationstester. Respondenternas svar på olika riskfrågor skapar ett riskindex som sedan analyseras mot deras svar på frågor om altruism. Resultatet visar att det finns korrelationer mellan vissa svar om altruism och riskindexet vilket betyder att altruism är en påverkningsfaktor för sociala entreprenörers riskattityd. Respondenterna visade sig vara relativt riskneutrala med tendens åt det riskaverta hållet mer än att vara risksökande. Vidare visar resultatet att kvinnliga och manliga sociala entreprenörer får vissa liknande samband och vissa helt olika. Dessutom finner studien fler samband mellan de respondenter som anser sig utveckla affärsmässiga lösningar på samhällsproblem jämfört med de som inte gör det. / The purpose of this paper is to examine if social entrepreneurs’ risk attitude is correlated to the specific characteristics of their altruism. Previous research has shown different results when comparing traditional entrepreneurs with social entrepreneurs in relation to risk. One of the reasons for this is that risk as a subject is complex and can be studied in many different ways. The definition of social entrepreneurship also varies between different research contexts and countries. The target group in our research is social entrepreneurs from a set definition, and with the use of a survey we find out their attitude towards risk. Previous research has also emphasized the importance of the target groups personalities, characteristics and other traits. Our study originated from the characteristic altruism and its effect on social entrepreneurs’ risk attitude. This study investigates in which way the degree of altruism can correlate to the risk attitude. Data from 100 social entrepreneurs is used to carry out Spearman r correlation in the data. The respondents answers to questions about risky situations created a risk index which was subsequently compared to their answers regarding altruism. The results showed correlations between a number of answers to the questions concerning altruism and the risk index, which means that altruism influence their risk attitude. The respondents turned out to be risk neutral with a tendency towards more risk averse than risk seeking. Furthermore, the results show that the female and male social entrepreneurs have some similar correlations and some with a distinct difference. There are also differences in the results between the respondents who answered yes and no to the question about whether or not they develop business solutions for social problems.This study is written and conducted in Swedish.

Bakgrund: Psykisk ohälsa är ett vanligt vård- och omvårdnadsproblem, ändå har sjuksköterskor en negativ inställning till och känner rädsla inför personer med psykisk ohälsa. Då sjuksköterskestudenter fick utökad utbildning inom ämnet psykiatri blev synsättet statistiskt sätt mer positivt. Det saknas forskning om vilken syn studenterna själva upplever att de har på patienter med psykisk ohälsa samt om den ändras under sjuksköterskeutbildningens gång. Syfte: Studiens syfte var att utforska sjuksköterskestudenters syn på patienter med psykisk ohälsa inom somatisk vård och omvårdnad, före och efter sin teoretiska och verksamhetsförlagda utbildning. Metod: En empirisk, utforskande studie med kvalitativ ansats genomfördes genom att hålla 2 fokusgruppdiskussioner. En modifierad latent innehållsanalys användes. Steg 1-5 behandlade diskussionernas material separat och steg 6 satte deras analysfynd i relation till varandra. Resultat: Analysen gav 4 kategorier: Öppna sig för den andre, Valet och kvalet, Gränslöst engagemang och Balans mellan förmåga och vilja. Slutsats: Analysfynden, förklarade med begreppet människosyn, visade att sjuksköterskestudenterna har en vilja att öppna sig för den andre samtidigt som de är i valet och kvalet om de ska följa samhällets normer eller sin egen vilja. Studenterna som är i början av sin utbildning visar ett gränslöst engagemang medan sjätte terminens studenter, som beskriver samma vilja, har insett sina begränsningar under utbildningen och utvecklat balans mellan förmåga och vilja. Främst genomsyras analysfynden av altruism och helhetssyn som utvecklats från att se enbart hela patienten till att inkludera samtliga resurser runtomkring. Klinisk betydelse: Studiens resultat kan bidra till sjuksköterskestudenters ökade intresse för patienter med psykisk ohälsa. / Background: Mental illness is a common nursing and caring problem and yet nurses have a negative attitude and fear against people with mental illness. Nursing students who gains additional education within psychiatry statistically gets a more positive attitude. There is a lack of research about which view of these patients the nursing students’ experience they have and if they feel it changes during the education. Purpose: The purpose of the study was to explore nursing students’ view of patients with mental illness within somatic nursing and caring, before and after their theoretical and practical education. Method: An empirical, exploring study was conducted with a qualitative approach by having 2 focus groups discussions. A modified latent content analysis was conducted. Stage 1-5 handled the discussions’ material separately, and stage 6 put their findings in relation to each other. Results: The analysis resulted in 4 categories: Open up to the other, Choice and anguish, Limitless involvement and Balance between ability and willingness. Conclusion: The findings, explained with the term view of man, showed that the nursing students’ have a wish to open up to the other at the same time as they are in choice and anguish if they shall follow the norms set by society or their own will. The students who are in the beginning of their education show limitless involvement while the sixth term’s students, who describes the same will, have realized their limitations during the education and have evolved a balance between ability and willingness. Uppermost the findings were lit by altruism and holism which evolved from only seeing the whole patient to include all surrounding means. Clinical meaning: The results of the study may contribute to nursing students’ increased interest for patients with mental illness.