M. Tech. (Department of Tourism and Hospitality Management, Faculty of Human Sciences) Vaal University of Technology. / Tourism is regarded as a global phenomenon in the 21st Century and is the world’s largest and fastest growing industry. Many countries globally look at tourism as a key driver for economic growth and rescue to their economic slumber (Brida, Lanzilotta, Moreno & Santiñaque 2018:62). In South Africa, tourism contributed immensely to total employment and economic activity in the country and the government sees this industry as a great resource, the country’s strategy for expansion and a possible vehicle to take South Africa into a new economic trajectory. The National Department of Tourism developed the National Tourism Sector Strategy (NTSS 2016-2026) to facilitate the growth of this industry. As a result, direct tourism performance is measured on an ongoing basis against the goals set for South Africa of which two of the performance measures are length of stay and direct spend (NTSS 2019). These two are important because if visitors stay for longer periods at a destination, their spending increases as they partake in more tourism activities and pay for accommodation. This in turn increases the value attached to tourism as an engine for economic growth (SA Tourism 2007:59). Tourists’ spending and length of stay are therefore very important variables in the tourism industry as they contribute immensely to the economic value of tourism to specific destinations (Wong, Fong, & Law, 2016:958; Wang, Fong, Law & Fang 2018:472; Montañoa, Rossellób & Sansób 2019:112). Length of stay and average spend per day by tourists are fluctuating for South Africa as a tourism destination (SAT 2009-2018). The growth of both these variables has also been small over a period of ten years. These fluctuations and slow growth exert pressure on the tourism industry (SAT 2005-2018) and therefore annually form part of the strategic objectives of the National Department of Tourism (NTSS 2019). An in-depth analysis of these two variables is lacking and understanding the factors influencing these two variables within a South African context is of paramount importance to improving the economic value of tourism to the country. Although the factors influencing the two variables have been widely researched, these cannot be stereotyped to all destinations as they are destination specific (Barros & Machado 2010:693; Gemara & Correiab 2018:56) and these have not been analysed in the context of South Africa as a tourism destination. Though fluctuating patterns and slow growth on tourists’ length of stay and spending in South Africa is evident and is a cause of concern, the real problem here is lack of in-depth information on factors which influence these two key variables from a South African perspective. Even though South African Tourism have placed length of stay and spending of tourists as key strategic variables that need to be closely monitored and improved it needs action from the South African context. Once these factors are known, only then can South African Tourism be able to condition them positively for the benefit of the country’s economy. This research therefore sought to explore the factors influencing the stay duration and spending behaviour of international air tourists to South Africa and how these factors can be developed to increase tourists’ length of stay and spending in South Africa. Hence the aim of this research was to identify and analyse factors that influence length of stay and spending behaviour of international tourists reaching South Africa by air and in both cases, attention was given to the intrinsic and extrinsic contributing factors. Literature was reviewed on tourists’ travel behaviour by means of an in-depth discussion of travel motivations in general and travel motivations to South Africa specifically, tourists’ decision-making process, type of holiday decisions tourists makes, and the factors that influence these tourists’ decisions. The composition of the total tourism product was also analysed as this has an influence on tourists’ travel behaviour. This was followed by a comprehensive analysis of literature concerning tourists’ spending behaviour and visitors’ length of stay, which form the pith of this study. The analysis focused on the definition of concepts such as tourists’ length of stay and spending behaviour, the importance of length of stay and spending behaviour of tourists in tourism, how tourism spending is measured, how tourism expenditure data is gathered, what constitutes tourism spending/expenditure and lastly the factors which influence tourists’ length of stay and spending behaviour. A quantitative paradigm in the form of a sample survey was used in conducting this research. This research follows a cross-sectional design (exploratory and descriptive in nature at the same time) which involves the collection of data on more than one case and at a single point in time. The target population of this study comprised international tourists who visited South Africa by air. These visitors were accessed at one of the top tourist attractions in Cape Town (one of the most popular cities for international tourists) namely Table Mountain Cable Way. Table Mountain was selected as a data collection hub as it enjoys the lion’s share of South Africa’s international tourist arrivals. According to the Table Mountain Aerial Cableway Company (TMACC2014:11), Table Mountain was named Africa’s leading tourist attraction in the World Travel Awards 2014 which makes it possible to pull many international tourists to the country of South Africa. Guided by previous similar studies, the sample size for this study was predetermined at 800 respondents of which 720 were completed without error signifying a response rate of 90%. A non-probability sampling technique namely convenience sampling was chosen for this survey as no list was available on who would be visiting the Table Mountain Arial Cable Way. The 800 international tourists were therefore purposively (only international visitors) and conveniently recruited depending on their willingness to participate in the research project; thus, a non-probability sampling technique was followed. Through the researcher distributing the questionnaire in person and using own judgement, a diverse range of nationalities, age groups and gender was included in the sample for it to be a close representation of all the visitors to South Africa as well as of the phenomenon under investigation. The questionnaire was designed and used to obtain detailed data on travel motivations, spending patterns and length of stay of the international air tourist market to South Africa. The questionnaire was designed from previous studies related to the above key variables and this added to the content validity of the questionnaire. A pre-test study was conducted by means of 10 survey questionnaires administered to academic experts at a University who had travelled abroad, and this added to the face validity of the questionnaire. The Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) version 23.0 for Windows was used to analyse the data and data gathered was presented by means of frequency tables and analytically described, subjected to exploratory factor analysis, one-way analysis of variances (ANOVA), t-tests, and Spearman’s rank order correlation analysis to establish the relationships between variables. Based on the empirical findings of this research project it is concluded that more males than females participated in this research and on average the age of the participants is 41 years, mostly married people and mainly staying in hotels and lodges. A variety of nationalities participated in this research but most of the respondents were from USA, UK followed by a huge margin from Germany, Netherlands and Australia, a profile which matches that of typical visitors to South Africa and were holders of a degree or diploma, followed by those with a postgraduate qualification with the majority being professionals followed by those in managerial positions. Most of the respondents to the study were first-time visitors to South Africa, travelling in a group of 3 or less people, and the average number of people in the travel group was 4 people and the average number of previous visits to South Africa was 1.68 times. Many of the respondents to this study travelled to South Africa mainly for holiday/leisure mostly to enjoy the natural attractions of South Africa since they placed high importance on appreciation of natural resources, enjoyment of beautiful scenery and sightseeing of tourist spots as important travel motivators. Most of the respondents to this study stayed on average 16.42 days which is higher than the annual average length of stay of international tourists. This information is very important from a marketing perspective as it helps in the profiling of tourists, targeting, tourism product development and positioning. Of importance as well is the fact that that the bigger the travel group the higher their spending will be. The most important aspects directly and significantly influencing length of stay were time constraints, the location of South Africa and financial constraints. It can be concluded that length of stay, availability of time to shop and respondents’ experience as a tourist directly and significantly contributes to visitor spending while interaction with the locals does not. The main travel motivations of international tourists to South Africa were Relaxation and Novelty, Social motivations, Cultural and heritage motivations, Personal Motivations and Destination motivations, of which Relaxation and Novelty and Cultural and Heritage motivations were rated high as travel motivations of tourists to South Africa. The main factors influencing length of stay of the respondents to this study were Personal experience, Access attributes, Destination attributes and Personal constraints. Of these factors, personal constraints and destination attributes ranked the highest as influencers of tourists’ length of stay. The respondents’ length of stay was least influenced by access attributes. The main factors influencing tourist spending patterns as determined by the factor analysis were: “Access and opportunity”, “Time availability” and “External influences”. Tourists’ spending was to a larger extent influenced by time availability followed by access and opportunity but least affected by external influences. The recommendations to increase length of stay and spending of inbound air tourists to South Africa made in this study are specific to South Africa as they were derived from a deep exploration of factors that influence air tourists’ length of stay and spending behaviour to South Africa. If South African Tourism, tourism industry associations and business owners implement these recommendations, this will improve both stay duration and spending of inbound air tourists to South Africa which has been fluctuating and showing slow growth. The recommendations most importantly add to literature that was lacking from a South African perspective on how length of stay and spending can be positively influenced for inbound air tourists to South Africa. The recommendations are as follows: South African Tourism, various industry associations (FEDHASA, ASATA, GHASA, RASA, SATSA), tour operators and travel agents, individual tourism and hospitality business companies that offer tourism products and services to inbound air tourists should take into consideration that length of stay is inhibited by personal constraints. It is thus important to offer value for money to the tourists. Continuous creative marketing strategies should be employed to attract long staying tourists to this country. South African Tourism, tourism business owners and industry associations should utilise new approaches and strategies that provides information about diverse range of attractions, spending opportunities and facilitate easy access as these are important to tourists who stay longer. Tourists’ personal experiences have a significant influence on tourists’ decisions to stay for longer periods hence South African Tourism and respective industry associations should offer thorough training to tourism and hospitality product/service providers and employees to enhance quality interaction with the visitors as this has a significant influence on the tourists’ decisions to stay longer in South Africa. Tourists that have been to South Africa before were influenced by personal experiences to stay for longer periods while the older and higher educated tourists were less influenced by the length of stay factors owing to their experience and confidence of what they want from a holiday in South Africa. South African Tourism, industry associations and tourism business owners should therefore target repeat visitors and the old, educated tourist market as they tend to stay for longer periods thus adding to the economic returns through their prolonged spending. Tourists that travel in larger groups are influenced by personal constraints, namely time and money; hence creating opportunities for value packages by tourism business owners in conjunction with wholesale and retail travel companies will ensure that this market stays longer in South Africa. Since destination attributes have proven to significantly influence length of stay of international tourists to South Africa, South Africa Tourism needs to create awareness on tourism opportunities that are not fully realised. This will increase tourists’ knowledge of the wide variety of activities and attractions to see in South Africa; hence they will budget long enough time to enjoy these products. Since spending patterns of tourists are influenced by time availability, if tourists stay longer, they will have enough time to shop and to experience destination products and services; hence their spending will rise. It is important to improve the environment related to Access and opportunity, Time availability and External influences as these factors influence how much tourists spend in the destination visited. The most important aspect to give attention to in order increase tourists’ spending is time availability. Opportunities should be created for tourists to spend money, which should be communicated on various platforms. South African Businesses that offer shopping opportunities (especially in shopping malls) should extend shopping hours late in the evening to allow tourists time to shop but safety and security should be geared up. Most of the tours do not always offer ample time for shopping and this should be communicated to the tour operators as it will also assist the local economy to grow.

Marknadsföringsstrategier är ett redskap som kan användas i flera syften av flera olika aktörer, bland annat företag, föreningar och andra verksamheter. I denna studie undersöks evenemanget Stockholm Marathon och vilka marknadsföringsstrategier deras aktörer använder i syfte att attrahera besökare till deras event för att därefter kunna sammanställa vilka marknadsföringsstrategier som är lämpliga för evenemang inom maratonlopp. Studiens syfte är att öka förståelsen för hur Stockholm Marathon arbetar med dessa strategier för att locka besökare men även att skapa förståelse för vilka marknadsföringsstrategier som är lämpliga för evenemang inom maratonlopp. Genom en intervju med Marathongruppen, som ansvarar för eventet Stockholm Marathon, en litteraturstudie, samt en netnografisk analys, har undersökningen kunnat sammanställa en slutsats som besvarar studiens frågeställning. Datainsamlingen visar att flera marknadsföringsstrategier är lämpliga men att olika strategier passar olika bra beroende på exempelvis målgrupp. Eftersomolika målgrupper bland annat föredrar olika marknadsföringskanaler så lyckas inte alla kanaler nå ut till det specifika evenemangets målgrupp. Dessutom har det visat sig att olika målgrupper har olika preferenser gällande evenemanget, exempelvis visade sig helhetsupplevelser och destinationen som evenemanget träder plats på vara av vikt för Stockholm Marathons besökare likväl som besökare vid andra maratonlopp. Digitaliserad marknadsföring i form av exempelvis egenskapat innehåll i sociala medier visade sig även vara en strategi som når ut till flera målgrupper beroende på kanalval. Den digitala marknadsföringen har även uppenbarat sig som en källa till engagemang, involvering och djupare relationer mellan besökare och aktörer vilket visade sig påverka beteenden i form av ökat intresse att besöka evenemanget. / Marketing strategies is a tool that can be used for several purposes by several different actors, including companies, associations and other businesses. In this study, the event Stockholm Marathon is examined as well as which marketing strategies their actors use to attract visitors to their event in order to then compile which marketing strategies are suitable for marathon events. The aim of this study is to increase the understanding of how Stockholm Marathon works with these strategies to attract visitors but also to create an understanding of which marketing strategies that are suitable for events within marathons. Through an interview with Marathongruppen, who are responsible for the event Stockholm Marathon, a literature study, and a netnographic analysis, the study has been able to compile a conclusion that answers the study's question. The collection of data shows that several marketing strategies are suitable, but that different strategies will fit differently depending on, for example, the target group. Because different target groups, among other things, prefer different marketing channels, not all channels succeed in reaching the specific event's target group. In addition to this, it has been shown that different target groups have different preferences regarding the event, for example the overall experience and the destination where the event takes place proved to be important for the visitors of Stockholm Marathon as well as visitors at other marathons. Digitized marketing in the form of, for example, self-created content in social media also proved to be a strategy that manages to reach several target groups depending on the choice of channel. Digital marketing has also revealed itself to be a source of commitment, involvement and deeper relationships between visitors and actors, which proved to influence behavior in the form of increased interest in visiting the event.

The intent of this project was to develop a method of making architecture which incorporates into its design the unique features of the site and region. The site was chosen because of its unique physical features and strong regional character. The ideas of the layering of the walls was derived from the strata of a nearby bluff. The form of the building, a series of parallel walls, was an interpretation of the natural architecture of the region and the site. The curved wall that terminates the path through the building originated as a response to the meeting of a stream and the river. Out of this project came a building design that developed from the site in an incremental way. The architectural elements respond to the site through their individual form and structure, then as a collective whole. / Master of Architecture

The aim of this study was to compare the outputs of two modes of citizen participation, the solicitation of written public input, and mail-back questionnaires, on the basis of the opinions and preferences expressed about ORV use and management at Cape Hatteras National Seashore. This comparative analysis was undertaken in order to gain a fuller understanding of the pitfalls and potentialities of survey research in the citizen participation process. The first of two data sets came from a 1978 survey of CHNS residents and visitors on their views about ORV use and possible management actions at the seashore. The second source of data was derived from a content analysis of the written public input on the ORV use and management issue. The Codinvolve System, which was pioneered by the U.S. Forest Service, was used for the content analysis. A test of the reliability of the coding was conducted to evaluate the coding procedure. A phi-test generated coefficients, which when transformed into chi-square values, revealed that the reliability rate was better than 90.0%. The comparison of the two data sets, the survey results, and the Codinvolve output, focused upon the differences between them with respect to the number and character of expressed opinions. Differences between the public input submitted prior to the release of a controversial National Park Service draft ORV management plan and that received after its release were also analyzed. Due to the general scarcity of comments within the public input, chi-square comparisons between the data sets were not feasible. Instead, comparisons of percentages were used to identify the salient differences. Substantial differences were found between the survey and Codinvolve data sets in both the number and character of expressed opinions. However, no substantial differences were found between the pre-plan public input and the post-plan public input. It was noted that the Park Service’s draft ORV management proposals were mentioned in over three-quarters of the post-plan public input. In conclusion, this study suggested that the solicitation of written public input is not an effective citizen participation technique as it fails to educate the public about the various elements and decision parameters associated with an issue. Furthermore, this citizen participation technique provided very limited data on the opinions and preferences of the affected public about ORV use and management. The possible research which survey research can perform in citizen participation and environmental conflict resolution are also discussed. The addition of a workbook or information manual to a mail-back questionnaire was suggested as a means of endowing this citizen participation technique with an educative element. The need for further research on the design and effectiveness of the combined workbook/mail-back questionnaire approach was stressed. / Master of Science

L'accessibilité des musées hongrois aux personnes en situation de handicap, entendue au sens large, c'est-à-dire l'accessibilité du cadre bâti, l'accès à l'information, à la communication, l'accès à l'offre culturelle et aux pratiques artistiques, constitue aujourd'hui non seulement une obligation légale mais surtout une opportunité d'élargissement des publics. Grâce à une politique volontariste d'accueil des publics en situation de handicap dans les musées et à une adaptation spécifique du cadre bâti, des supports d'informations et de communication, des prestations et animations culturelles ou encore des outils et supports pédagogiques grâce aux innovations technologiques en perpétuelle innovation, il est possible de prendre en compte tous les types de visiteurs en situation de handicap dans les musées et de leur faire bénéficier de services et d'offres adaptés à leurs attentes et à leurs besoins. Pour autant, dans la pratique, la réalité sur le terrain hongrois n'est pas toujours si évidente, les rapports entre les personnes en situation de handicap et les musées hongrois étant un fait relativement récent. Pour aborder ce sujet, trois musées nationaux de Budapest ont été choisis par rapport à leurs critères particuliers en tant qu'études de cas afin d'analyser la situation de l'accessibilité et de mettre en place dans ces musées des projets de mise en accessibilité pour l'accueil des publics en situation de handicap. Les conclusions issues de la mise en place de ces divers projets développés dans ces trois musées permettent de dresser des recommandations, des préconisations et des pistes d'actions destinées plus particulièrement aux professionnels des musées. / The accessibility of the Hungarian museums for people with disabilities - i.e. in a broader sense accessibility of the building, access to information and communication and access to cultural and artistic practices - represents today not only a legal obligation but actually a substantial contribution to the enlargement of the public. Thanks to the voluntarist politics in the museums regarding services of handicapped people, thanks to the special adjustment of the buildings, to the information and communication appliences, to the cultural services and even to the pedagogical means and methods in a constant technological development and innovation, it is possible to take into consideration all types of visitors with disabilities and to provide them with services adjusted to their expectations and needs. Nevertheless in practice this is not always so obvious in Hungary, the dialogue between handicapped people and the Hungarian museums started just recently. In order to investigate this subject matter, three national museums have been selected in Budapest to be examined in a case study. The aim was to see and analyse their conditions of accessibility and implement the projects related to accesibility and to the actions how to welcome a public with disabilities. The conclusions drawn from the different projects developped in these three museums make it possible to set up recommendations and suggestions and to propose action plans particularly to the professionals working in the museums.

Turismen organiseras av offentlig sektor, privata aktörer eller dessa två i samverkan och kan avgränsas på olika sätt, geografiskt eller politiskt. Denna studie syftar till att undersöka och jämföra destinationer i Sverige på lokal och regional nivå för att se hur de är organiserade, med fokus på hur offentliga och privata aktörer arbetar för destinationens utveckling. Genom kvalitativa intervjuer med privata och offentliga aktörer på destinationerna Bohuslän och Stockholms skärgård har vi genomfört en komparativ studie. Studien diskuterar olika former av turismorganisationer och visar att Bohuslän och Stockholms skärgård liknar varandra i hur de är organiserade på lokal och regional nivå och att det på båda destinationerna finns samarbeten mellan offentliga och privata aktörer för att utveckla destinationerna. / The tourism in Sweden is organised by the public sector, the business world or these two in collaboration. The boundaries can be either geographical or political. This study aims at study and compare Swedish tourist destinations at local regional level to find how they are organized with focus at how public sector and the business world manage destination development. Through qualitative interviews with public sector and the business world at the destinations Bohuslän and Stockholms skärgård we have a comparative study. The study discusses different types of tourist organizations and shows that Bohuslän and Stockholms skärgård are similar in the way their tourism is organized at local and regional level. At both destinations there is collaboration between the public sector and the business world to develop the destination.

This study explores various drivers of Internet stock prices. This study extends the previous work on Internet stock valuation along two dimensions: (1) the separation of Internet firms into web-related and non-web-related groups. (2) the incorporation of consideration for the effect of Internet shakeout on value drivers identified in this study. The primary findings are as follows. First, this study finds evidence that contradicts the claims made by some analysts that web traffic metrics are no longer important. The findings show that web-traffic remains value-relevant to Internet stock price for the period Oct 1998 to May 2003. Second, this study documents evidence against the “common wisdom”, as represented in the business press, that traditional financial statement information has limited usefulness in pricing of Internet stocks. The variable “revenues” is significantly positively associated with the stock price in the pre- and post-shakeout period for all Internet firms. Third, consistent with prior research on other intangibles-intensive industries, this study finds that, in particular, product development (R&D) appears to be capitalized as assets by investors in their assessment of values of web firms during the testing period, including period subsequent to the industry shakeout in the spring of 2000. This research thus provides preliminary evidence of the value-relevance of R&D expense of the shakeout and maturation of the B2C Internet sector. Fourth, with respect to the inquiry of the potential effect of difference in web-traffic on the pricing of Internet stock, the empirical results demonstrate the importance of this consideration. The findings indicate that raw web-traffic variable is not value-relevant for non-web firms, while it is value-relevant for web firms. Finally, the market condition of Internet stocks appears to be influential in explaining the pricing of Internet share. The empirical result shows that the share prices of Internet stocks are higher before the market correction, when holding other variable as controlled.

O objetivo principal da presente pesquisa foi estimar o valor monetário de visitação do Parque "PHILLIPE WESTIN CABRAL DE VASCONCELOS" e adjacências da ESALQ/ USP localizado no Município de Piracicaba do Estado de São Paulo. Para tanto, foi aplicado o método de valoração contingente, adotando-se o modelo de referendo com distribuição de probabilidade logística. O levantamento de dados foi efetuado no período de agosto a setembro de 2004, realizando-se 207 entrevistas, extraindo-se uma amostra para aproveitamento de 202 observações. O valor médio da disposição a pagar foi estimado em R$ 14,53 por mês. O beneficio econômico total foi estimado em R$ 37.487,40 por mês, considerando o numero total estimado de 2.580 visitantes mensais. Tais valores demonstram o considerável beneficio econômico que os atributos do Parque da ESALQ/ USP geram para toda a população local. Tais resultados podem ser utilizados para auxiliar no planejamento de políticas de visitação ordenada do lugar, além de auxiliar na justificativa do investimento na manutenção e preservação do lugar. O estudo constatou os motivos para não aceitação do valor de pagamento mensal. O valor sugerido, a restrição orçamentária e a imputação de que a manutenção e preservação de áreas naturais publicas é responsabilidade do governo, são algumas das principais razões. / The main objective of the present research was to estimate the monetary value of visitation of Park "PHILLIPE WESTIN CABRAL OF VASCONCELOS" and adjacencies of ESALQ/USP located in the City of Piracicaba, State of São Paulo. For which, the method of contingent valuation was applied, adopting the model countersignature with distribution of logistic probability. The data-collected was over the period between August and September 2004. The sample totaled 207 interviews, out of which, 202 were used in the estimation procedures. The average value of the willingness to pay was estimated to be R$ 14,53 per month. The total economic benefit was calculated to be R$ 37.487,40 per month considering a total monthly visitation of 2.580. Such values demonstrate a considerable economic benefit that Park of ESALQ/USP generates for all its visitors. Such results can be used to assist in the planning of visitation policies and to justify the investment in the Park’s maintenance and preservation. Also, the main reasons for payment refusal were: suggested value; the income restriction; and the perception that the maintenance and preservation of public natural areas are responsibility of the government.

Recently, New Zealand's wine industry has made remarkable progress. For example, the number of hectares planted in grapes increased from 4,880 in 1990, to 15,479 in 2003, and the number of wineries increased from 175 in 1993 to 421 in 2003. Projections for 2006 indicate that the growth of wine exports should nearly double from 2003, with expected revenues of $NZ 736 million. However, despite this growth, little has been reported about developments in New Zealand's wine tourism industry, or about consumer perceptions of the winery experience in the form of published academic research. The limited amount of information, particularly from the visitors' points of view, may not only be preventing winery operators and the wine industry in general from having a better understanding of their visitors, but also from addressing the needs of different visitor segments. Resulting implications for winery operators may include forgone business opportunities, and customers not fully benefiting in terms of product and service quality. Recent studies indicate that this last element is particularly important in wine tourism. This study reports the results of an exploratory research project conducted in New Zealand wineries that investigated aspects of the winery experience, including wine involvement, satisfaction with the winery experience, and visitor demographics. An index to measure involvement with wine, the wine involvement index (WIX), was developed and utilised to investigate whether wine involvement had an impact on winery visitors' behaviour. Data were collected from winery visitors via questionnaires distributed in a sample of wineries in different wine regions of New Zealand. A total of 609 usable responses were obtained (24.8% response rate). The results indicate a number of differences between the independent, dependent, and moderating variables. For example, it was found that age, whether visitors are domestic or international, and different levels of wine involvement appear to have a clear impact on winery expenditure. In addition, the WIX was confirmed to be a useful tool, for example, by identifying potential relationships between different groups of winery visitors. The results add new knowledge to the area of wine tourism, and offer useful information for wineries and the wine tourism industry. This information includes the potential commercial significance of some visitor groups. An additional contribution of this study is the 'complete wine tourism research model.' This concept presents an alternative to existing wine tourism models, and points out attributes and dimensions that play a major role in the winery experience.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / A renewed focus on generalised pollinator systems has inspired a conceptual framework which highlights that spatial and temporal interactions among plants and their assemblage of pollinators can vary across the individual, population, regional and species levels. Pollination is clearly a dynamic interaction, varying in the number and interdependence of participants and the strength of the outcome of the interaction. Therefore, the role of variation in pollination is fundamental for understanding ecological dynamics of plant populations and is a major factor in the evolution and maintenance of generalised and specialised pollination systems. My study centred on these basic concepts by addressing the following questions: (1) How variable are pollinators in a generalised pollination system? To what degree do insect visitation rates and assemblage composition vary spatially among populations and temporally among flowering seasons? (2) How does variation in pollinators affect plant reproductive success? I chose to do this using a model system, Trachymene incisa subsp. incisa (Apiaceae), which is a widespread Australian herbaceous species with simple white flowers grouped into umbels that attract a high diversity of insect visitors. The Apiaceae are considered to be highly generalist in terms of pollination, due to their simple and uniform floral display and easily accessible floral rewards. Three populations of T. incisa located between 70 km and 210 km apart were studied over 2-3 years. The few studies investigating spatial and temporal variation simultaneously over geographic and yearly/seasonal scales indicate that there is a trend for more spatial than temporal variation in pollinators of generalist-pollinated plants. My study showed both spatial and temporal variation in assemblage composition among all populations and variation in insect visitation rates, in the form of a significant population by year interaction. However, removing ants from the analyses to restrict the assemblage to flying insects and the most likely pollinators, resulted in a significant difference in overall visitation rate between years but no difference in assemblage composition between the Myall Lakes and Tomago populations. These results indicate more temporal than spatial variation in the flying insect visitor assemblage of T. incisa. Foraging behaviour provides another source of variation in plant-pollinator interactions. Trachymene incisa exhibits umbels that function as either male or female at any one time and offer different floral rewards in each phase. For successful pollination, pollinators must visit both male and female umbels during a foraging trip. Insects showed both preferences and non-preferences for umbel phases in natural patches where the gender ratio was male biased. In contrast, insects showed no bias in visitation during a foraging trip or in time spent foraging on male and female umbels in experimental arrays where the gender ratio was equal. Pollinator assemblages consisting of a mixture of different pollinator types coupled with temporal variation in the assemblages of populations among years maintains generalisation at the population/local level. In addition, spatial variation in assemblages among populations maintains generalisation at the species level. Fire alters pollination in T. incisa by shifting the flowering season and reducing the abundance of flying insects. Therefore, fire plays an important role in maintaining spatial and temporal variation in this fire-prone system. Although insect pollinators are important in determining the mating opportunities of 90% of flowering plant species worldwide, few studies have looked at the effects of variation in pollinator assemblages on plant reproductive success and mating. In T. incisa, high insect visitation rates do not guarantee high plant reproductive success, indicating that the quality of visit is more important than the rate of visitation. This is shown by comparing the Agnes Banks and Myall Lakes populations in 2003: Agnes Banks received the highest visitation rate from an assemblage dominated by ants but produced the lowest reproductive output, and Myall Lakes received the lowest visitation rate by an assemblage dominated by a native bee and produced the highest seedling emergence. Interestingly, populations with different assemblage composition can produce similar percentage seed set per umbel. However, similar percentage seed set did not result in similar percentage seedling emergence. Differences among years in reproductive output (total seed production) were due to differences in umbel production (reproductive effort) and proportion of umbels with seeds, and not seed set per umbel. Trachymene incisa is self-compatible and suffers weak to intermediate levels of inbreeding depression through early stages of the life cycle when seeds are self-pollinated and biparentally inbred. Floral phenology, in the form of synchronous protandry, plays an important role in avoiding self-pollination within umbels and reducing the chance of geitonogamous pollination between umbels on the same plant. Although pollinators can increase the rate of inbreeding in T. incisa by foraging on both male and female phase umbels on the same plant or closely related plants, most consecutive insect movements were between plants not located adjacent to each other. This indicates that inbreeding is mostly avoided and that T. incisa is a predominantly outcrossing species, although further genetic analyses are required to confirm this hypothesis. A new conceptual understanding has emerged from the key empirical results in the study of this model generalised pollination system. The large differences among populations and between years indicate that populations are not equally serviced by pollinators and are not equally generalist. Insect visitation rates varied significantly throughout the day, highlighting that sampling of pollinators at one time will result in an inaccurate estimate and usually underestimate the degree of generalisation. The visitor assemblage is not equivalent to the pollinator assemblage, although non-pollinating floral visitors are likely to influence the overall effectiveness of the pollinator assemblage. Given the high degree of variation in both the number of pollinator species and number of pollinator types, I have constructed a model which includes the degree of ecological and functional specialisation of a plant species on pollinators and the variation encountered across different levels of plant organisation. This model describes the ecological or current state of plant species and their pollinators, as well as presenting the patterns of generalisation across a range of populations, which is critical for understanding the evolution and maintenance of the system. In-depth examination of pollination systems is required in order to understand the range of strategies utilised by plants and their pollinators, and I advocate a complete floral visitor assemblage approach to future studies in pollination ecology. In particular, future studies should focus on the role of introduced pollinators in altering generalised plant-pollinator systems and the contribution of non-pollinating floral visitors to pollinator assemblage effectiveness. Comparative studies involving plants with highly conserved floral displays, such as those in the genus Trachymene and in the Apiaceae, will be useful for investigating the dynamics of generalised pollination systems across a range of widespread and restricted species.