Infertility politics implies a role for the state in regulating the relationships between different parties involved in the medicalized process of reproduction, namely would-be-parents (infertile couples or individuals), gamete donors, surrogate mothers, fertility specialists, etc. Policies adopted by the Canadian federal government in 2004 as regards assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) were largely inspired by British regulations. Despite this similar start, Canadian policies never lead to implementation; the province of Quebec rapidly contested the federal Assisted Human Reproduction Act before the courts; and many issues of assisted conception were regulated in a heterogeneous manner by the provinces. Meanwhile in Britain, the implementation of the policies created many disparities among the regions of the country; the principle of the law was thoroughly contested and scrutinized; and the sites of deliberation were multiple in spite of the existence of a national regulatory agency. First, the author argues that assisted reproduction technologies cannot be taken as one policy domain, but is an umbrella label for a variety of policy issues. In that context, ARTs are unpacked in order to study, at the system level, the practices related to the overcoming of infertility. I focus on three sub-issues: access to fertility treatments, including the question of public funding and access criteria; gamete and embryo donation, including the question of filiation and donor conceived children’s right to know their biological origins; and surrogacy or the enforcement of pre-natal gestational surrogacy arrangements. Second, by mapping the variety of discourses and arenas mobilized by a range of actors, this study shows how framing and reframing dynamics influence public policies and their implementation. Third, by comparing frame mobilization and discursive dynamics between Quebec, Ontario and England this analysis demonstrates how frame alignment can be a necessary condition for a frame to be performative and influence policy outcomes. Depending on the context in which it occurs, frame transformation, amplification, extension or bridging can induce stability or trigger a cascade of events that will lead to policy change or to a change in the implementation of a policy.

Introdução: O Brasil está passando por uma transição demográfica e epidemiológica, com melhorias na área da saúde. Apesar desse cenário, as taxas de baixo peso ao nascer (BPN) e a mortalidade infantil permanecem altas. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar o impacto do uso extensivo de tecnologias, como o parto cesáreo e a concepção assistida, sobre resultados perinatais, durante os últimos 16 anos. Esse objetivo foi dividido em duas partes: (1) avaliação do impacto do aumento da taxa de parto cesáreo no BPN, de acordo com tipo de hospital (privado, público ou misto) e (2) avaliação do impacto das taxas de nascimentos múltiplos nas taxas de mortalidade infantil. Métodos: Estudo observacional de todos os nascidos vivos registrados entre 1996 e 2011, em Porto Alegre (RS). Características maternas, do parto, de assistência e do recém-nascido foram obtidas através do Sistema de Informações sobre Nascidos Vivos (SINASC). Informações sobre a mortalidade foram obtidas a partir do Sistema de Informações sobre Mortalidade (SIM), apenas no período de 1996-2010. No estudo do BPN, os nascimentos múltiplos foram excluídos. A análise de tendência foi realizada através de modelos de regressão joinpoint. A Regressão de Poisson foi utilizada para calcular o risco relativo para BPN ao longo do período, ajustado pelas covariáveis. O modelo de Equações de Estimação Generalizadas foi utilizado para avaliar o risco relativo para mortalidade infantil entre gemelares e nascimentos únicos ao longo do período, ajustado pelas covariáveis. Foi calculado o risco atribuível populacional, para avaliar o impacto dos gêmeos dizigóticos sobre taxas de mortalidade infantil (TMI) e seus componentes, taxa de mortalidade neonatal (TMN) e taxa de mortalidade pósneonatal (TMPN). Resultados: No estudo sobre baixo peso ao nascer, foram incluídos 319.597 nascidos vivos durante o período. Foi observado um aumento de 43% na cobertura do setor privado, de 14,9% em 1996 para 21,3% em 2011. As taxas de cesarianas aumentaram 52%, chegando a 86,9%, 51,0% e 37,5% em 2011, nos hospitais privados, mistos e públicos, respectivamente. As taxas de baixo peso ao nascer aumentaram significativamente nos hospitais privados e mistos, independentemente do tipo de parto. Nos hospitais públicos, diminuíram no grupo de recém-nascidos por parto cesáreo e se mantiveram estáveis para os nascidos por parto normal. Houve associação entre o aumento das taxas de cesarianas com o aumento nas taxas de baixo peso ao nascer, durante o período. Em relação aos gêmeos e à mortalidade infantil, foi observado um aumento significativo na taxa de nascimentos múltiplos, de 1,97% em 1996 para 2,45% em 2010, p<0,001, entre os quais 65% eram dizigóticos (DZ) em 2010. Houve uma redução na mortalidade infantil e seus componentes para o grupo de nascimentos únicos: a TMI caiu de 15,4‰ para 8,3‰; a TMN, de 8,3‰ para 5,04‰; e a TMPN, de 7,0‰ para 2,9‰. Entre gêmeos, essas taxas permaneceram constantes, em torno de 44‰, 33‰ e 11‰ respectivamente. Em 1996, 1,7% da TMI, 2,0% da TMN e 1,4% da TMPN podem ser atribuídos aos gêmeos DZ. Em 2010, a contribuição de gêmeos DZ subiu para 8,4% (TMI), 9,8% (TMN) e 5,7% (TMPN). Conclusão: A assistência à saúde intensa e não regulamentada fornecida pelo setor privado e as melhorias na saúde, no setor público, apresentam cenários contraditórios, sugerindo abordagens diferenciadas para esses grupos, a fim de diminuir a diferença entre as taxas de baixo peso ao nascer e a mortalidade infantil no Brasil. / Introduction: Brazil is undergoing demographic and epidemiological transitions with improvements of health care standards. Despite this scenario, low birth weight (LBW) and infant mortality (IM) rates remains elevate, mainly in more developed areas of the country. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of extensive use of technologies, such as cesarean section (CS) and artificial insemination rates on neonatal outcomes, during the last 16 years. At first, we will investigate the impact of the increase rate of CS in LBW, considering the changes in pattern of health insurance; and second, we will investigate the impact of multiple births in infant mortality. Methods: This is an observational study of all live births registered between 1996 and 2011, in Porto Alegre (RS). Birth weight, type of delivery, type of pregnancy (single or multiple), prenatal coverage, maternal characteristics and health care insurance according to type of hospital (private, mixed, public) were obtained from the Information System on Live Births (SINASC). Information on mortality was obtained from Information System on Mortality (SIM), only in the period of 1996 to 2010. In the study of LBW, multiple births were excluded. Trends in LBW, CS and covariates were assessed using joinpoint regression models, general and according to the type of hospital. Poisson regression was used to calculate the relative risk for LBW over the period, adjusted for covariates. Generalized Estimated Equations model was used to evaluate the relative risk for infant mortality among multiple births and sigletons, adjusted for covariates. Populational Attributable Risk was calculated to evaluate the impact of multiple births on infant mortality. Results: In the study of low birth weight, there was a total of 319,597 live births included in the analysis during the period. An intense change in the pattern of health insurance was observed with an increase of 43% in private sector coverage from 14.9% (1996) to 21.3% (2011). CS rates increased 52%, reaching 86.9%, 51.0% and 37.5% in 2011, respectively, in private, mixed and public hospitals. LBW rates increased significantly in private and mixed hospitals independently of the type of delivery. In opposition, LBW rates decreased in public hospitals for babies born by CS and remained stable for those born by vaginal delivery. Increases in CS and in prenatal coverage were associated with rising of LBW rates during the period. Reduction in the number of adolescent mothers and improvements in maternal education were the main protector factors for LBW during the period. There was a significant increase in multiple births rate from 1.97% (1996) to 2.45% (2010), p<0.001, among which 65% were dizygotic in 2010. There was a reduction in IMR and its components, in singletons: IMR fell from 15.4‰ to 8.3‰, TMN, from 8.3‰ to 5.04‰ and PNMR from 7.0‰ to 2.9‰. Between twins these rates remained constant at around 44‰, 33‰ and 11‰, respectively. In 1996, 1.7% of the infant mortality rate, 2.0% of the neonatal mortality rate 1.4% and the rate of post-neonatal mortality could be attributed to DZ twins. In 2010, the contribution of DZ twins rose to 8.4% in infant mortality, neonatal mortality 9.8% and 5.7% in the post-neonatal mortality. Conclusion: Increase in LBW was related with an intense change in patterns of health insurance associated with overuse of medical technologies. In counterpart, social improvements and increase in access to prenatal care reduced this impact in public and mixed hospitals.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Nesta tese foram analisadas iniciativas e ações individuais e coletivas de gestores e profissionais de dois Hospitais Público-Universitários de Saúde, que mantêm serviços de referência no atendimento às infertilidades, no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. É visada a implementação de tecnologias de reprodução assistida (RA) pelo SUS, no Estado. O estudo constou de entrevistas com profissionais de saúde destes serviços e especialistas na área que ali atuam, leitura de prontuários e pesquisa documental no Departamento de Serviço Social de um dos serviços, além de atualização bibliográfica no campo estudado. Os resultados obtidos de material primário e documental evidenciam a não priorização da reprodução assistida em políticas públicas de saúde no Brasil. No entanto, foi possível encontrar importantes iniciativas dos próprios profissionais de saúde para a ampliação da atenção em infertilidade e do acesso às tecnologias reprodutivas no Rio de Janeiro. Em geral, foram mobilizações individuais, que dependeram do empenho direto dos médicos responsáveis dos serviços. As motivações para estas ações incluíam aspectos acadêmicos, assistenciais, de direitos reprodutivos, além de interesses público-privados. A única mobilização interinstitucional, organizada inicialmente pelo Serviço Social, não conseguiu garantir o acesso à assistência integral em reprodução assistida no Rio de Janeiro. No caso da reprodução assistida, há uma forte desigualdade de base socioeconômica, já que mulheres e casais pobres são excluídos, ou quase, do acesso à IIU, Fiv e ICSI, pois não têm condições econômicas para tentar um tratamento particular, onde se encontram concentradas mais de 90% da assistência no país. Este segmento populacional não encontra recursos, nem tecnológicos, nem humanos, nos serviços públicos de saúde. Este quadro aumenta sua vulnerabilidade e reduz sua autonomia reprodutiva pela falta de acesso. / This thesis analyses initiatives and actions undertaken by managers and health professionals working in two public university hospitals that offer model health services to tackle the problem of infertility in the state of Rio de Janeiro. The aim of the study is to infer the implementation of Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) by the Brazilian Universal Health System (SUS) in these two different Units. The study was based on interviews with medical specialists and other health professionals; archived patient data and documental service papers, besides an update of the concerned scientific literature (critical reading). The results from our primary data (interviews) as well as patients data show non-prioritizing policies and implementation of high complexity techniques at SUS. Nevertheless, we could find relevant initiatives emerging from actions by the health staff themselves, in order to try to guarantee access to ART techniques to women and couples living in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Most of them consisted of individual mobilization, depending on direct efforts undertaken by the heads of the medical facilities in the hospital. The motivations for these actions ranged from academic interests to the aim of improving availability of treatment, the concern with reproductive rights, and what we called in this text public-private interests. We found the organization of a network initiative by health social works, but it did not achieve the integral access to treatment in the area of assisted reproduction (ART), in Rio de Janeiro. In the case of ART, there is a huge socioeconomic inequality that almost completely excludes poor women and couples from the access to IIU, Fiv and Icsi, since these techniques are present in 90% of cases in private clinics and private health sector not integrated to the SUS. So, this population that cannot count on economic resources is also excluded from technologic and human resources for ART. This lack of access aggravates their vulnerability also reducing their reproductive autonomy in decisions making.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado do Rio de Janeiro / Nesta tese foram analisadas iniciativas e ações individuais e coletivas de gestores e profissionais de dois Hospitais Público-Universitários de Saúde, que mantêm serviços de referência no atendimento às infertilidades, no Estado do Rio de Janeiro. É visada a implementação de tecnologias de reprodução assistida (RA) pelo SUS, no Estado. O estudo constou de entrevistas com profissionais de saúde destes serviços e especialistas na área que ali atuam, leitura de prontuários e pesquisa documental no Departamento de Serviço Social de um dos serviços, além de atualização bibliográfica no campo estudado. Os resultados obtidos de material primário e documental evidenciam a não priorização da reprodução assistida em políticas públicas de saúde no Brasil. No entanto, foi possível encontrar importantes iniciativas dos próprios profissionais de saúde para a ampliação da atenção em infertilidade e do acesso às tecnologias reprodutivas no Rio de Janeiro. Em geral, foram mobilizações individuais, que dependeram do empenho direto dos médicos responsáveis dos serviços. As motivações para estas ações incluíam aspectos acadêmicos, assistenciais, de direitos reprodutivos, além de interesses público-privados. A única mobilização interinstitucional, organizada inicialmente pelo Serviço Social, não conseguiu garantir o acesso à assistência integral em reprodução assistida no Rio de Janeiro. No caso da reprodução assistida, há uma forte desigualdade de base socioeconômica, já que mulheres e casais pobres são excluídos, ou quase, do acesso à IIU, Fiv e ICSI, pois não têm condições econômicas para tentar um tratamento particular, onde se encontram concentradas mais de 90% da assistência no país. Este segmento populacional não encontra recursos, nem tecnológicos, nem humanos, nos serviços públicos de saúde. Este quadro aumenta sua vulnerabilidade e reduz sua autonomia reprodutiva pela falta de acesso. / This thesis analyses initiatives and actions undertaken by managers and health professionals working in two public university hospitals that offer model health services to tackle the problem of infertility in the state of Rio de Janeiro. The aim of the study is to infer the implementation of Assisted Reproductive Technologies (ART) by the Brazilian Universal Health System (SUS) in these two different Units. The study was based on interviews with medical specialists and other health professionals; archived patient data and documental service papers, besides an update of the concerned scientific literature (critical reading). The results from our primary data (interviews) as well as patients data show non-prioritizing policies and implementation of high complexity techniques at SUS. Nevertheless, we could find relevant initiatives emerging from actions by the health staff themselves, in order to try to guarantee access to ART techniques to women and couples living in the state of Rio de Janeiro. Most of them consisted of individual mobilization, depending on direct efforts undertaken by the heads of the medical facilities in the hospital. The motivations for these actions ranged from academic interests to the aim of improving availability of treatment, the concern with reproductive rights, and what we called in this text public-private interests. We found the organization of a network initiative by health social works, but it did not achieve the integral access to treatment in the area of assisted reproduction (ART), in Rio de Janeiro. In the case of ART, there is a huge socioeconomic inequality that almost completely excludes poor women and couples from the access to IIU, Fiv and Icsi, since these techniques are present in 90% of cases in private clinics and private health sector not integrated to the SUS. So, this population that cannot count on economic resources is also excluded from technologic and human resources for ART. This lack of access aggravates their vulnerability also reducing their reproductive autonomy in decisions making.

Introdução: O Brasil está passando por uma transição demográfica e epidemiológica, com melhorias na área da saúde. Apesar desse cenário, as taxas de baixo peso ao nascer (BPN) e a mortalidade infantil permanecem altas. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar o impacto do uso extensivo de tecnologias, como o parto cesáreo e a concepção assistida, sobre resultados perinatais, durante os últimos 16 anos. Esse objetivo foi dividido em duas partes: (1) avaliação do impacto do aumento da taxa de parto cesáreo no BPN, de acordo com tipo de hospital (privado, público ou misto) e (2) avaliação do impacto das taxas de nascimentos múltiplos nas taxas de mortalidade infantil. Métodos: Estudo observacional de todos os nascidos vivos registrados entre 1996 e 2011, em Porto Alegre (RS). Características maternas, do parto, de assistência e do recém-nascido foram obtidas através do Sistema de Informações sobre Nascidos Vivos (SINASC). Informações sobre a mortalidade foram obtidas a partir do Sistema de Informações sobre Mortalidade (SIM), apenas no período de 1996-2010. No estudo do BPN, os nascimentos múltiplos foram excluídos. A análise de tendência foi realizada através de modelos de regressão joinpoint. A Regressão de Poisson foi utilizada para calcular o risco relativo para BPN ao longo do período, ajustado pelas covariáveis. O modelo de Equações de Estimação Generalizadas foi utilizado para avaliar o risco relativo para mortalidade infantil entre gemelares e nascimentos únicos ao longo do período, ajustado pelas covariáveis. Foi calculado o risco atribuível populacional, para avaliar o impacto dos gêmeos dizigóticos sobre taxas de mortalidade infantil (TMI) e seus componentes, taxa de mortalidade neonatal (TMN) e taxa de mortalidade pósneonatal (TMPN). Resultados: No estudo sobre baixo peso ao nascer, foram incluídos 319.597 nascidos vivos durante o período. Foi observado um aumento de 43% na cobertura do setor privado, de 14,9% em 1996 para 21,3% em 2011. As taxas de cesarianas aumentaram 52%, chegando a 86,9%, 51,0% e 37,5% em 2011, nos hospitais privados, mistos e públicos, respectivamente. As taxas de baixo peso ao nascer aumentaram significativamente nos hospitais privados e mistos, independentemente do tipo de parto. Nos hospitais públicos, diminuíram no grupo de recém-nascidos por parto cesáreo e se mantiveram estáveis para os nascidos por parto normal. Houve associação entre o aumento das taxas de cesarianas com o aumento nas taxas de baixo peso ao nascer, durante o período. Em relação aos gêmeos e à mortalidade infantil, foi observado um aumento significativo na taxa de nascimentos múltiplos, de 1,97% em 1996 para 2,45% em 2010, p<0,001, entre os quais 65% eram dizigóticos (DZ) em 2010. Houve uma redução na mortalidade infantil e seus componentes para o grupo de nascimentos únicos: a TMI caiu de 15,4‰ para 8,3‰; a TMN, de 8,3‰ para 5,04‰; e a TMPN, de 7,0‰ para 2,9‰. Entre gêmeos, essas taxas permaneceram constantes, em torno de 44‰, 33‰ e 11‰ respectivamente. Em 1996, 1,7% da TMI, 2,0% da TMN e 1,4% da TMPN podem ser atribuídos aos gêmeos DZ. Em 2010, a contribuição de gêmeos DZ subiu para 8,4% (TMI), 9,8% (TMN) e 5,7% (TMPN). Conclusão: A assistência à saúde intensa e não regulamentada fornecida pelo setor privado e as melhorias na saúde, no setor público, apresentam cenários contraditórios, sugerindo abordagens diferenciadas para esses grupos, a fim de diminuir a diferença entre as taxas de baixo peso ao nascer e a mortalidade infantil no Brasil. / Introduction: Brazil is undergoing demographic and epidemiological transitions with improvements of health care standards. Despite this scenario, low birth weight (LBW) and infant mortality (IM) rates remains elevate, mainly in more developed areas of the country. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of extensive use of technologies, such as cesarean section (CS) and artificial insemination rates on neonatal outcomes, during the last 16 years. At first, we will investigate the impact of the increase rate of CS in LBW, considering the changes in pattern of health insurance; and second, we will investigate the impact of multiple births in infant mortality. Methods: This is an observational study of all live births registered between 1996 and 2011, in Porto Alegre (RS). Birth weight, type of delivery, type of pregnancy (single or multiple), prenatal coverage, maternal characteristics and health care insurance according to type of hospital (private, mixed, public) were obtained from the Information System on Live Births (SINASC). Information on mortality was obtained from Information System on Mortality (SIM), only in the period of 1996 to 2010. In the study of LBW, multiple births were excluded. Trends in LBW, CS and covariates were assessed using joinpoint regression models, general and according to the type of hospital. Poisson regression was used to calculate the relative risk for LBW over the period, adjusted for covariates. Generalized Estimated Equations model was used to evaluate the relative risk for infant mortality among multiple births and sigletons, adjusted for covariates. Populational Attributable Risk was calculated to evaluate the impact of multiple births on infant mortality. Results: In the study of low birth weight, there was a total of 319,597 live births included in the analysis during the period. An intense change in the pattern of health insurance was observed with an increase of 43% in private sector coverage from 14.9% (1996) to 21.3% (2011). CS rates increased 52%, reaching 86.9%, 51.0% and 37.5% in 2011, respectively, in private, mixed and public hospitals. LBW rates increased significantly in private and mixed hospitals independently of the type of delivery. In opposition, LBW rates decreased in public hospitals for babies born by CS and remained stable for those born by vaginal delivery. Increases in CS and in prenatal coverage were associated with rising of LBW rates during the period. Reduction in the number of adolescent mothers and improvements in maternal education were the main protector factors for LBW during the period. There was a significant increase in multiple births rate from 1.97% (1996) to 2.45% (2010), p<0.001, among which 65% were dizygotic in 2010. There was a reduction in IMR and its components, in singletons: IMR fell from 15.4‰ to 8.3‰, TMN, from 8.3‰ to 5.04‰ and PNMR from 7.0‰ to 2.9‰. Between twins these rates remained constant at around 44‰, 33‰ and 11‰, respectively. In 1996, 1.7% of the infant mortality rate, 2.0% of the neonatal mortality rate 1.4% and the rate of post-neonatal mortality could be attributed to DZ twins. In 2010, the contribution of DZ twins rose to 8.4% in infant mortality, neonatal mortality 9.8% and 5.7% in the post-neonatal mortality. Conclusion: Increase in LBW was related with an intense change in patterns of health insurance associated with overuse of medical technologies. In counterpart, social improvements and increase in access to prenatal care reduced this impact in public and mixed hospitals.

Introdução: O Brasil está passando por uma transição demográfica e epidemiológica, com melhorias na área da saúde. Apesar desse cenário, as taxas de baixo peso ao nascer (BPN) e a mortalidade infantil permanecem altas. O objetivo deste estudo é avaliar o impacto do uso extensivo de tecnologias, como o parto cesáreo e a concepção assistida, sobre resultados perinatais, durante os últimos 16 anos. Esse objetivo foi dividido em duas partes: (1) avaliação do impacto do aumento da taxa de parto cesáreo no BPN, de acordo com tipo de hospital (privado, público ou misto) e (2) avaliação do impacto das taxas de nascimentos múltiplos nas taxas de mortalidade infantil. Métodos: Estudo observacional de todos os nascidos vivos registrados entre 1996 e 2011, em Porto Alegre (RS). Características maternas, do parto, de assistência e do recém-nascido foram obtidas através do Sistema de Informações sobre Nascidos Vivos (SINASC). Informações sobre a mortalidade foram obtidas a partir do Sistema de Informações sobre Mortalidade (SIM), apenas no período de 1996-2010. No estudo do BPN, os nascimentos múltiplos foram excluídos. A análise de tendência foi realizada através de modelos de regressão joinpoint. A Regressão de Poisson foi utilizada para calcular o risco relativo para BPN ao longo do período, ajustado pelas covariáveis. O modelo de Equações de Estimação Generalizadas foi utilizado para avaliar o risco relativo para mortalidade infantil entre gemelares e nascimentos únicos ao longo do período, ajustado pelas covariáveis. Foi calculado o risco atribuível populacional, para avaliar o impacto dos gêmeos dizigóticos sobre taxas de mortalidade infantil (TMI) e seus componentes, taxa de mortalidade neonatal (TMN) e taxa de mortalidade pósneonatal (TMPN). Resultados: No estudo sobre baixo peso ao nascer, foram incluídos 319.597 nascidos vivos durante o período. Foi observado um aumento de 43% na cobertura do setor privado, de 14,9% em 1996 para 21,3% em 2011. As taxas de cesarianas aumentaram 52%, chegando a 86,9%, 51,0% e 37,5% em 2011, nos hospitais privados, mistos e públicos, respectivamente. As taxas de baixo peso ao nascer aumentaram significativamente nos hospitais privados e mistos, independentemente do tipo de parto. Nos hospitais públicos, diminuíram no grupo de recém-nascidos por parto cesáreo e se mantiveram estáveis para os nascidos por parto normal. Houve associação entre o aumento das taxas de cesarianas com o aumento nas taxas de baixo peso ao nascer, durante o período. Em relação aos gêmeos e à mortalidade infantil, foi observado um aumento significativo na taxa de nascimentos múltiplos, de 1,97% em 1996 para 2,45% em 2010, p<0,001, entre os quais 65% eram dizigóticos (DZ) em 2010. Houve uma redução na mortalidade infantil e seus componentes para o grupo de nascimentos únicos: a TMI caiu de 15,4‰ para 8,3‰; a TMN, de 8,3‰ para 5,04‰; e a TMPN, de 7,0‰ para 2,9‰. Entre gêmeos, essas taxas permaneceram constantes, em torno de 44‰, 33‰ e 11‰ respectivamente. Em 1996, 1,7% da TMI, 2,0% da TMN e 1,4% da TMPN podem ser atribuídos aos gêmeos DZ. Em 2010, a contribuição de gêmeos DZ subiu para 8,4% (TMI), 9,8% (TMN) e 5,7% (TMPN). Conclusão: A assistência à saúde intensa e não regulamentada fornecida pelo setor privado e as melhorias na saúde, no setor público, apresentam cenários contraditórios, sugerindo abordagens diferenciadas para esses grupos, a fim de diminuir a diferença entre as taxas de baixo peso ao nascer e a mortalidade infantil no Brasil. / Introduction: Brazil is undergoing demographic and epidemiological transitions with improvements of health care standards. Despite this scenario, low birth weight (LBW) and infant mortality (IM) rates remains elevate, mainly in more developed areas of the country. The aim of this study is to evaluate the impact of extensive use of technologies, such as cesarean section (CS) and artificial insemination rates on neonatal outcomes, during the last 16 years. At first, we will investigate the impact of the increase rate of CS in LBW, considering the changes in pattern of health insurance; and second, we will investigate the impact of multiple births in infant mortality. Methods: This is an observational study of all live births registered between 1996 and 2011, in Porto Alegre (RS). Birth weight, type of delivery, type of pregnancy (single or multiple), prenatal coverage, maternal characteristics and health care insurance according to type of hospital (private, mixed, public) were obtained from the Information System on Live Births (SINASC). Information on mortality was obtained from Information System on Mortality (SIM), only in the period of 1996 to 2010. In the study of LBW, multiple births were excluded. Trends in LBW, CS and covariates were assessed using joinpoint regression models, general and according to the type of hospital. Poisson regression was used to calculate the relative risk for LBW over the period, adjusted for covariates. Generalized Estimated Equations model was used to evaluate the relative risk for infant mortality among multiple births and sigletons, adjusted for covariates. Populational Attributable Risk was calculated to evaluate the impact of multiple births on infant mortality. Results: In the study of low birth weight, there was a total of 319,597 live births included in the analysis during the period. An intense change in the pattern of health insurance was observed with an increase of 43% in private sector coverage from 14.9% (1996) to 21.3% (2011). CS rates increased 52%, reaching 86.9%, 51.0% and 37.5% in 2011, respectively, in private, mixed and public hospitals. LBW rates increased significantly in private and mixed hospitals independently of the type of delivery. In opposition, LBW rates decreased in public hospitals for babies born by CS and remained stable for those born by vaginal delivery. Increases in CS and in prenatal coverage were associated with rising of LBW rates during the period. Reduction in the number of adolescent mothers and improvements in maternal education were the main protector factors for LBW during the period. There was a significant increase in multiple births rate from 1.97% (1996) to 2.45% (2010), p<0.001, among which 65% were dizygotic in 2010. There was a reduction in IMR and its components, in singletons: IMR fell from 15.4‰ to 8.3‰, TMN, from 8.3‰ to 5.04‰ and PNMR from 7.0‰ to 2.9‰. Between twins these rates remained constant at around 44‰, 33‰ and 11‰, respectively. In 1996, 1.7% of the infant mortality rate, 2.0% of the neonatal mortality rate 1.4% and the rate of post-neonatal mortality could be attributed to DZ twins. In 2010, the contribution of DZ twins rose to 8.4% in infant mortality, neonatal mortality 9.8% and 5.7% in the post-neonatal mortality. Conclusion: Increase in LBW was related with an intense change in patterns of health insurance associated with overuse of medical technologies. In counterpart, social improvements and increase in access to prenatal care reduced this impact in public and mixed hospitals.

Magister Legum - LLM / In this research, I carefully and coherently examine Chapter 19 of the Children's Act 38 of 2005 as the first legislation to afford surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition in South Africa. I argue that the application of Chapter 19 imposes a number of unwarranted limitations on several of the constitutional rights of the parties to a surrogacy agreement. In addition, I propose that Chapter 19 is not in accordance with the principal of the best interests of the child. I examine the history of surrogate motherhood in South Africa and establish that, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, no legislation expressly afforded surrogate motherhood agreements legal recognition. Hence, prior to the enactment of Chapter 19, parties who entered surrogacy agreements could, first, not rely on the agreement to enforce contractual obligations, and secondly, the legal positions of the parties to the agreement were uncertain. Thirdly, a child born of a surrogacy agreement was seen as the child of the surrogate mother and not of the commissioning parents. / South Africa

Infertility politics implies a role for the state in regulating the relationships between different parties involved in the medicalized process of reproduction, namely would-be-parents (infertile couples or individuals), gamete donors, surrogate mothers, fertility specialists, etc. Policies adopted by the Canadian federal government in 2004 as regards assisted reproductive technologies (ARTs) were largely inspired by British regulations. Despite this similar start, Canadian policies never lead to implementation; the province of Quebec rapidly contested the federal Assisted Human Reproduction Act before the courts; and many issues of assisted conception were regulated in a heterogeneous manner by the provinces. Meanwhile in Britain, the implementation of the policies created many disparities among the regions of the country; the principle of the law was thoroughly contested and scrutinized; and the sites of deliberation were multiple in spite of the existence of a national regulatory agency. First, the author argues that assisted reproduction technologies cannot be taken as one policy domain, but is an umbrella label for a variety of policy issues. In that context, ARTs are unpacked in order to study, at the system level, the practices related to the overcoming of infertility. I focus on three sub-issues: access to fertility treatments, including the question of public funding and access criteria; gamete and embryo donation, including the question of filiation and donor conceived children’s right to know their biological origins; and surrogacy or the enforcement of pre-natal gestational surrogacy arrangements. Second, by mapping the variety of discourses and arenas mobilized by a range of actors, this study shows how framing and reframing dynamics influence public policies and their implementation. Third, by comparing frame mobilization and discursive dynamics between Quebec, Ontario and England this analysis demonstrates how frame alignment can be a necessary condition for a frame to be performative and influence policy outcomes. Depending on the context in which it occurs, frame transformation, amplification, extension or bridging can induce stability or trigger a cascade of events that will lead to policy change or to a change in the implementation of a policy.

Des études récentes ont démontré une augmentation de la prévalence de l’infertilité au Canada ainsi qu’une augmentation fulgurante de l’utilisation de la procréation assistée. Le Québec s’est doté en 2010 d’un programme de financement de la procréation assistée visant un accès universel ainsi que la protection de la santé des mères et des enfants. Les diverses parties prenantes attribuent un certain nombre de lacunes à ce programme, incluant l’absence de mesures de prévention et de promotion de la santé visant à réduire la prévalence de l’infertilité. En effet, une proportion significative de cas d’infertilité découle de facteurs modifiables et relatifs aux modes de vie tels que le tabagisme, les infections transmises sexuellement et par le sang, les problèmes de poids, les toxines environnementales et l’âge. De plus, l’âge maternel avancé ainsi que l’usage de la procréation assistée comportent des risques pour la santé des mères et des enfants au sujet desquels la population ne possède pas une connaissance suffisante. Des approches en amont ont été proposées par diverses organisations et dans divers pays, toutefois, peu ont été adoptées. Force est de constater que ces initiatives représentent de grands défis au point de vue de l’acceptabilité sociale, en raison de la nature sensible du sujet et d’une grande valorisation sociale de l’autonomie reproductive. L’éthique des communications en santé permet d’identifier ces défis qui touchent l’usage de tactiques persuasives, le risque de stigmatisation et l’attribution indue d’une responsabilité. Si leur élaboration tient compte de ces enjeux, les campagnes de communications en santé ont le potentiel d’informer adéquatement la population afin de favoriser l’autonomie et la santé reproductive des individus, sans causer de dommage iatrogénique. L’éthique de l’ « empowerment », qui requiert l’attribution d’une responsabilité individuelle de nature prospective, l’apport de ressources concrètes et l’implication des communautés, permet d’identifier les besoins en termes de solutions législatives favorisant des contextes socioéconomiques qui soutiennent la santé reproductive et l’autonomie reproductive. / Recent studies have demonstrated an increased prevalence of infertility in Canada and a tremendous growth in assisted reproductive technologies use. In 2010, the Quebec government launched a public funding program for assisted reproductive technologies, which aims to provide equitable access and to protect the health of mothers and children. Various stakeholders have identified a number of shortcomings to this program, including the absence of prevention and health promotion measures aimed towards reducing the prevalence of infertility. Indeed, a significant proportion of infertility cases is attributable to modifiable and lifestyle related factors such as smoking, sexually transmitted infections, weight problems, environmental toxins and age. In addition, both advanced maternal age and assisted reproductive technologies utilization pose risks to the health of mothers and children, about which the population is not adequately informed. Preventative approaches have been proposed by many organizations in various countries but few have been implemented. A reason for this might be that these initiatives represent major challenges in terms of social acceptability, due to the sensitive nature of the subject and the strong social respect for reproductive autonomy. Health communication ethics highlights these issues such as the use of persuasive tactics, the risk of stigmatization, and undue attribution of responsibility. If designed effectively with these challenges in mind, health communication campaigns for infertility prevention have the potential to adequately inform the public, thus fostering reproductive autonomy and health, without causing iatrogenic damage. The ‘ethics of empowerment’, with its requirements for assigning only prospective individual responsibility, providing concrete resources and involving communities in social change, helps in identifying the needs for policy solutions that address the social context in order to enhance reproductive health and reproductive autonomy.

Des études récentes ont démontré une augmentation de la prévalence de l’infertilité au Canada ainsi qu’une augmentation fulgurante de l’utilisation de la procréation assistée. Le Québec s’est doté en 2010 d’un programme de financement de la procréation assistée visant un accès universel ainsi que la protection de la santé des mères et des enfants. Les diverses parties prenantes attribuent un certain nombre de lacunes à ce programme, incluant l’absence de mesures de prévention et de promotion de la santé visant à réduire la prévalence de l’infertilité. En effet, une proportion significative de cas d’infertilité découle de facteurs modifiables et relatifs aux modes de vie tels que le tabagisme, les infections transmises sexuellement et par le sang, les problèmes de poids, les toxines environnementales et l’âge. De plus, l’âge maternel avancé ainsi que l’usage de la procréation assistée comportent des risques pour la santé des mères et des enfants au sujet desquels la population ne possède pas une connaissance suffisante. Des approches en amont ont été proposées par diverses organisations et dans divers pays, toutefois, peu ont été adoptées. Force est de constater que ces initiatives représentent de grands défis au point de vue de l’acceptabilité sociale, en raison de la nature sensible du sujet et d’une grande valorisation sociale de l’autonomie reproductive. L’éthique des communications en santé permet d’identifier ces défis qui touchent l’usage de tactiques persuasives, le risque de stigmatisation et l’attribution indue d’une responsabilité. Si leur élaboration tient compte de ces enjeux, les campagnes de communications en santé ont le potentiel d’informer adéquatement la population afin de favoriser l’autonomie et la santé reproductive des individus, sans causer de dommage iatrogénique. L’éthique de l’ « empowerment », qui requiert l’attribution d’une responsabilité individuelle de nature prospective, l’apport de ressources concrètes et l’implication des communautés, permet d’identifier les besoins en termes de solutions législatives favorisant des contextes socioéconomiques qui soutiennent la santé reproductive et l’autonomie reproductive. / Recent studies have demonstrated an increased prevalence of infertility in Canada and a tremendous growth in assisted reproductive technologies use. In 2010, the Quebec government launched a public funding program for assisted reproductive technologies, which aims to provide equitable access and to protect the health of mothers and children. Various stakeholders have identified a number of shortcomings to this program, including the absence of prevention and health promotion measures aimed towards reducing the prevalence of infertility. Indeed, a significant proportion of infertility cases is attributable to modifiable and lifestyle related factors such as smoking, sexually transmitted infections, weight problems, environmental toxins and age. In addition, both advanced maternal age and assisted reproductive technologies utilization pose risks to the health of mothers and children, about which the population is not adequately informed. Preventative approaches have been proposed by many organizations in various countries but few have been implemented. A reason for this might be that these initiatives represent major challenges in terms of social acceptability, due to the sensitive nature of the subject and the strong social respect for reproductive autonomy. Health communication ethics highlights these issues such as the use of persuasive tactics, the risk of stigmatization, and undue attribution of responsibility. If designed effectively with these challenges in mind, health communication campaigns for infertility prevention have the potential to adequately inform the public, thus fostering reproductive autonomy and health, without causing iatrogenic damage. The ‘ethics of empowerment’, with its requirements for assigning only prospective individual responsibility, providing concrete resources and involving communities in social change, helps in identifying the needs for policy solutions that address the social context in order to enhance reproductive health and reproductive autonomy.