A funcionalização da matriz celulósica é um ponto essencial para o aprimoramento dos dispositivos microfluídicos baseados em papel (µPADs). Ela permite minimizar o preparo de amostras e a interferência do usuário, principais fontes de erro no processo analítico. A oxidação da celulose durante uma hora com m-periodato de sódio e a imobilização química de enzimas a partir da formação de bases de Schiff (iminas), via a adição direta da enzima ao substrato oxidado sem a necessidade de outras etapas, é um processo rápido e de baixo custo, apresentando grande potencialidade de aplicação nos dispositivos microfluídicos em papel. A enzima glicose oxidase imobilizada na celulose, com a adição do estabilizante trealose, apresentou elevada atividade catalítica - de 31,9 ± 5,5 mmol L-1 para a enzima não imobilizada a 14,8 ± 2,0 mmol L-1 para a enzima imobilizada e com o estabilizante - além de apresentar maior homogeneidade de sinal, condições desejáveis em testes rápidos em papel. A confecção de dispositivos em papel via impressão em cera alia rapidez e baixo custo de produção, e o arranjo em camadas para originar dispositivos tridimensionais (3D) permite ampliar as funcionalidades dos dispositivos em duas dimensões, tal como o tratamento individualizado de camadas e o armazenamento de reagentes no próprio dispositivo. O método da adição de padrão para obtenção de curvas analíticas no próprio microchip em papel surge como alternativa às curvas analíticas externas, minimizando a manipulação e o preparo de amostras. O uso do ácido 2,2’-azino-bis (3-etilbenzotiazolina-6-sulfônico) - ABTS como indicador redox para as reações enzimáticas e o método de adição de padrão nos µPADs apresentou boa correlação com um modelo de crescimento e saturação de Michaelis-Menten (r2 = 0,8723) na faixa de 0 a 10 mmol L-1, e a utilização da faixa linear para quantificação de glicose (0 a 3 mmol L-1) apresentou grande correlação linear com a concentração estimada pelas curvas de adição de padrão (r2 = 0,959), demonstrando a potencialidade do método. A união da tecnologia desses dispositivos em papel com a de um software automatizado de reconhecimento de imagens (PAlizer) torna instantânea a obtenção de resultados, eliminando-se a necessidade de intervenção humana no processo, tornando os testes em papel mais robustos, reprodutíveis e rápidos. Com o contínuo aperfeiçoamento das funcionalidades e potencialidades dos dispositivos microfluídicos em papel espera-se que os testes diagnósticos de baixo custo atinjam àqueles que deles necessitam, contribuindo para a saúde da população. / Functionalization of a cellulosic matrix is essential for the success of the paper-based microfluidic analytical devices (µPADs). It allows minimization of sample preparation and user interference, both being major sources of errors in the analytical process. Cellulose oxidation with sodium m-periodate during one hour and the direct chemical immobilization of enzymes on it by Schiff-base (imines) formation, which is made by direct insertion of the enzyme on the oxidized substrate without subsequent steps, is a fast and low cost process of immobilization, presenting great potential of application in paper-based microfluidic analytical devices. The glucose oxidase enzyme immobilized on cellulose, with the addition of trehalose stabilizer presented enhanced catalytic activity - from 31.9 ± 5.5 mmol L-1 for the non-immobilized enzyme to 14.8 ± 2.0 mmol L-1 for the immobilized enzyme with the stabilizing agent - also presenting greater signal homogeneity, which are ideal characteristics in a paper-based rapid test. Wax printing is a simple, inexpensive and fast method by which micro-devices can be fabricated. Additionally, the stacking of layers originating tridimensional devices (3D) allow for the improvement of functionalities of 2-dimensional ones, such as individualized layer treatment and reagent storage at different layers in the same device. Standard addition to analytical curves in paper-based microchips is an alternative to external analytical curves, minimizing handling/sample preparation. The use of 2,2\'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid - ABTS redox indicator with the enzymatic reactions and the standard addition method in µPADs presented a good correlation in a growth and saturation Michaelis-Menten model (r2 = 0.8723), in the range of 0 to 10 mmol L-1, and the usage of the linear range to the glucose quantification (0 to 3 mmol L-1) presented a high linear correlation with the estimated concentration from the standard addition curves (r2 = 0.959), showing the potentiality of the method. The coupling of such paper-based devices to automated image analysis software, such as \'PAlizer\', turns the data acquisition process instantaneous, eliminating the need of human intervention during the process, making it more robust, reproducible and rapid. Expectations lie in improving the devices functions and potential so that these low-cost diagnostic devices can one day reach those who need them, contributing significantly to public health.

A funcionalização da matriz celulósica é um ponto essencial para o aprimoramento dos dispositivos microfluídicos baseados em papel (µPADs). Ela permite minimizar o preparo de amostras e a interferência do usuário, principais fontes de erro no processo analítico. A oxidação da celulose durante uma hora com m-periodato de sódio e a imobilização química de enzimas a partir da formação de bases de Schiff (iminas), via a adição direta da enzima ao substrato oxidado sem a necessidade de outras etapas, é um processo rápido e de baixo custo, apresentando grande potencialidade de aplicação nos dispositivos microfluídicos em papel. A enzima glicose oxidase imobilizada na celulose, com a adição do estabilizante trealose, apresentou elevada atividade catalítica - de 31,9 ± 5,5 mmol L-1 para a enzima não imobilizada a 14,8 ± 2,0 mmol L-1 para a enzima imobilizada e com o estabilizante - além de apresentar maior homogeneidade de sinal, condições desejáveis em testes rápidos em papel. A confecção de dispositivos em papel via impressão em cera alia rapidez e baixo custo de produção, e o arranjo em camadas para originar dispositivos tridimensionais (3D) permite ampliar as funcionalidades dos dispositivos em duas dimensões, tal como o tratamento individualizado de camadas e o armazenamento de reagentes no próprio dispositivo. O método da adição de padrão para obtenção de curvas analíticas no próprio microchip em papel surge como alternativa às curvas analíticas externas, minimizando a manipulação e o preparo de amostras. O uso do ácido 2,2’-azino-bis (3-etilbenzotiazolina-6-sulfônico) - ABTS como indicador redox para as reações enzimáticas e o método de adição de padrão nos µPADs apresentou boa correlação com um modelo de crescimento e saturação de Michaelis-Menten (r2 = 0,8723) na faixa de 0 a 10 mmol L-1, e a utilização da faixa linear para quantificação de glicose (0 a 3 mmol L-1) apresentou grande correlação linear com a concentração estimada pelas curvas de adição de padrão (r2 = 0,959), demonstrando a potencialidade do método. A união da tecnologia desses dispositivos em papel com a de um software automatizado de reconhecimento de imagens (PAlizer) torna instantânea a obtenção de resultados, eliminando-se a necessidade de intervenção humana no processo, tornando os testes em papel mais robustos, reprodutíveis e rápidos. Com o contínuo aperfeiçoamento das funcionalidades e potencialidades dos dispositivos microfluídicos em papel espera-se que os testes diagnósticos de baixo custo atinjam àqueles que deles necessitam, contribuindo para a saúde da população. / Functionalization of a cellulosic matrix is essential for the success of the paper-based microfluidic analytical devices (µPADs). It allows minimization of sample preparation and user interference, both being major sources of errors in the analytical process. Cellulose oxidation with sodium m-periodate during one hour and the direct chemical immobilization of enzymes on it by Schiff-base (imines) formation, which is made by direct insertion of the enzyme on the oxidized substrate without subsequent steps, is a fast and low cost process of immobilization, presenting great potential of application in paper-based microfluidic analytical devices. The glucose oxidase enzyme immobilized on cellulose, with the addition of trehalose stabilizer presented enhanced catalytic activity - from 31.9 ± 5.5 mmol L-1 for the non-immobilized enzyme to 14.8 ± 2.0 mmol L-1 for the immobilized enzyme with the stabilizing agent - also presenting greater signal homogeneity, which are ideal characteristics in a paper-based rapid test. Wax printing is a simple, inexpensive and fast method by which micro-devices can be fabricated. Additionally, the stacking of layers originating tridimensional devices (3D) allow for the improvement of functionalities of 2-dimensional ones, such as individualized layer treatment and reagent storage at different layers in the same device. Standard addition to analytical curves in paper-based microchips is an alternative to external analytical curves, minimizing handling/sample preparation. The use of 2,2\'-azino-bis(3-ethylbenzothiazoline-6-sulphonic acid - ABTS redox indicator with the enzymatic reactions and the standard addition method in µPADs presented a good correlation in a growth and saturation Michaelis-Menten model (r2 = 0.8723), in the range of 0 to 10 mmol L-1, and the usage of the linear range to the glucose quantification (0 to 3 mmol L-1) presented a high linear correlation with the estimated concentration from the standard addition curves (r2 = 0.959), showing the potentiality of the method. The coupling of such paper-based devices to automated image analysis software, such as \'PAlizer\', turns the data acquisition process instantaneous, eliminating the need of human intervention during the process, making it more robust, reproducible and rapid. Expectations lie in improving the devices functions and potential so that these low-cost diagnostic devices can one day reach those who need them, contributing significantly to public health.

De nouveaux matériaux ont été conçus à partir de matériaux hybrides organique-inorganiques mésoporeux renfermant des complexes de Cu(II). Ils ont été mis en œuvre comme catalyseurs dans des réactions d'oxydation sélective. La localisation des sites du métal a été contrôlée en utilisant trois ligands synthétiques le type organosilane et deux stratégies différentes, c. àd.,une synthèse dite "one-pot", et un greffage post-synthètique. Les organosilanes ont été le N-(2-aminoéthyl)-3-aminopropyltriméthoxysilane (L1), le N-propylamine-salicylaldimine-triméthoxy-silane (L2) et le de N-(salicylaldimine)- (N'-propyltriméthoxylsilane)-diéthylènetriamine (L3). En outre, l'ion Ni(II) a été utilisé comme sonde structurale. Selon la synthèse "one-pot", les complexes Ni(II)-L1, Cu(II)-L1 et Cu(II)-L2 ont été co-condensés avec du silicate de sodium en présence d'un tensoactif, le cé-tyltriméthylammonium tosylate. Ce dernier avait le rôle de gabarit structurant pour la cons-truction d'organosilices mésoporeuses périodiques (PMOs), de structure bien ordonnée de type MCM-41. Ces matériaux ont ensuite été soumis à des traitements mis au point pour pré-server la structure mésoporeuse utilisant un mélange de chlorotriméthylsilane et hexaméthyl-disilazane ou une quantité appropriée de HCl aqueux (lavage) pour extraire le tensio-actif. Dans les greffages post synthétiques, les complexes Ni(II)-L1, Cu(II)-L1 ou Cu(II)-L3 ont été liés de façon covalent à la surface de silice mésoporeuse préformée selon une distribution uniforme mettant en œuvre une technique dite de pochoir moléculaire. Une caractérisation multitechnique approfondie fut mener pour vérifier la structure et la morphologie du matériau et pour déterminer le site de coordination du métal (XRD, TEM, isothermes d'adsorp-tion-désorption d'azote, analyse élémentaire, ATG, spectroscopies DRUV, FT-IR et RPE). De plus, l'accessibilité chimique du site métallique et le relargage du métal ont été testés en utili-sant 1) l'isothiocyanate (SCN-) comme ligand sonde, 2) l' échange des ions Ni(II) par les ions Cu (II) d'ions ou encore 3) la résistance à la lixiviation acide. Outre les sites métalliques des canaux obtenus par greffage et trés ressemblant à des sites "en solution", deux autres sites ont été mis en évidence. Ils sont tous les deux situés dans les murs des pores. L'un non accessible, est appelé “site enlisé”, l'autre est “site émergenant”. L'activité catalytique en hydroxylation du phénol par le peroxyde d'hydrogène et oxydation du catéchol par le dioxygène dépend de la localisation du métal. Les complexes Cu(II)-L3 greffés présentent les meilleures activités catalytiques et fonctionnent dans l'eau. La conversion et la sélectivité en produits valorisables comme le catéchol et l'hydroquinone, ont été étudiées en fonction du temps, de la température, du pH et du rapport substrat /oxydant. Enfin, le recyclage du catalyseur a également été étu-dié.

Made available in DSpace on 2015-05-14T13:21:28Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivototal.pdf: 3057605 bytes, checksum: 28d023a60720f2efcfba34ac8067319f (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-07-24 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / We describe here the synthesis and characterization of six compounds derived from Meldrum's acid inspired in the classic salens/salofens systems: four ligands (H2melen, H2Cy2melen, H2melophen, and H2Cy2melophen) and two Mn complexes [MnII(melophen)·1,7H2O and MnII(Cy2melophen)·1,7H2O]. Only H2melofen has been previously described. The ligands were synthesized via the reaction between a 5-methoxymethylene derivative of Meldrum's acid and the diamines ethylenediamine or o-phenylenediamine, resulting in the ligands melens or melofens, respectively, in moderate-to-high yields. The melens and melophens were characterized by 1H and 13C NMR, IR, and ESI-MS. UV-vis studies and thermal analysis (TG/DTA) of this class of compounds were reported here for the first time. Molar absorptivity (ε) for the absorption maxima in EtOH and DMSO were determined. TG/DTA studies were consistent with a two-step process: decomposition of the Meldrum ring (with loss of CO2 and ketone) yields likely a bis-ketene, which is then fully oxidized at high temperatures. The synthesis of new Schiff-base-type coordination compounds ,using Mn(OAc)2·4H2O as a source of Mn led to the isolation of MnII(melofen)·1,7H2O and MnII(Cy2melofen)·1,7H2O in 45% and 47% yield, respectively; all attempts to metallate the melens compounds were unsuccessful. The Mn-melophens proved insoluble in water and of low stability to acidic demetallation. Data of ESI-MS, TG/DTA, conductimetry, FT-IR and UV-vis spectroscopies, cyclic voltammetry and elemental analysis (%Mn) were used to characterize the MnII-melophens and are consistent with the isolation of Mn(II) complexes, in contrast with the Mn(III) complexes of MnIII-salophens. The metallation stabilized Meldrum´s ring thermally, but, once decompose began with loss of CO2 and ketone, the presence of manganese facilitated the combustion of the remaining organic matter. The effect of increasing the Mn(III)/Mn(II) reduction potential for the design of SOD mimics and cytochrome P450 models based on this new class of ligands is discussed. / Descreve-se aqui a síntese e caracterização de seis compostos derivados de ácido de Meldrum inspirados nos clássicos salens/salofens, sendo quatro ligantes (H2melen, H2Cy2melen, H2melofen e H2Cy2melofen) e dois complexos de Mn (MnII(melofen)·1,7H2O e MnII(Cy2melofen)·1,7H2O). Apenas o composto H2melofen não é inédito. Os ligantes foram sintetizados através da reação entre os derivados 5-metoximetilênico do ácido de Meldrum e diaminas etilenodiamina ou o-fenilenodiamina, resultando nos ligantes melens ou melofens, respectivamente, com bons rendimentos, melens (77% e 83%) e melofens (71% e 46%). Os melens e melofens foram caracterizados por RMN de 1H e 13C, IV, e ESI-MS. Estudos de UV-vis e de análise térmica (TG/DTA) dessa classe de compostos foram reportados pela primeira vez. Absortividades molares (ε) dos máximos de absorção em EtOH e DMSO foram determinadas. Os estudos de TG/DTA são consistentes com um processo em duas etapas: a decomposição do anel de Meldrum (com liberação de cetona e CO2) resulta, possivelmente na formação de um bis-ceteno, que é, em seguida, oxidado em elevadas temperaturas. A síntese de novos compostos de coordenação do tipo base de Schiff, usando Mn(OAc)2·4H2O como fonte de Mn, resultou nos complexos MnII(melofen)·1,7H2O e MnII(Cy2melofen)·1,7H2O em rendimentos de 45% e 47%, respectivamente; todas as tentativas de metalação dos melens foram sem sucesso. Os Mn-melophens mostraram-se insolúveis em água e de baixa estabilidade frente à desmetalação ácida. Os dados de ESI-MS, TG/DTA, condutimetria, espectroscopia (UV-vis e IV), voltametria cíclica e análise elementar (%Mn), foram usados na caracterização dos MnII-melofens e são consistentes com o isolamento de complexos de Mn(II), em contraste com os de Mn(III) dos MnIII-salofens. A metalação estabilizou termicamente o anel de Meldrum, mas, uma vez iniciada a decomposição daquele com a perda de CO2 e cetona, a presença do Mn facilitou a combustão da matéria orgânica restante. O efeito do aumento do potencial de redução Mn(III)/Mn(II) para o design de mímicos de SOD e de citocromos P450 à base dessa nova classe de ligantes é discutido.

Due to the system does not recognize equations and formulas the resumo and abstract can be found in the PDF file. / Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / Devido ao sistema não reconhecer equações e fórmulas o resumo e abstract encontra-se no arquivo em PDF.

[pt] Câncer é o nome dado a um conjunto de mais de 100 doenças e entre as possibilidades de tratamento está a quimioterapia. Após a descoberta das propriedades antitumorais do complexo de coordenação comumente chamado cisplatina, um dos compostos mais utilizados em neoplasias malignas, o estudo dos complexos metálicos teve um grande impulso e alguns compostos promissores de cobre(II) já foram desenvolvidos. Por outro lado, bases de Schiff derivadas de aminas e aldeídos aromáticos têm apresentado uma ampla aplicação em muitas áreas de pesquisa, sendo que algumas são farmacologicamente utilizadas na terapia anti-hipertensiva, hipnótica e antineoplásica. Neste contexto, no presente trabalho, foi sintetizado e caracterizado um ligante imínico binucleante sulfonado derivado da taurina, já conhecido na literatura: (LIT) e, a partir deste, seus complexos inéditos de Zn(II), Cu(II) e Ni(II), que foram caracterizados pelas seguintes técnicas: espectroscopia vibracional e eletrônica, análise elementar de CHNS, análise termogravimétrica, espectroscopia de ressonância paramagnética eletrônica (EPR) e modelagem molecular computacional. Os novos compostos obtidos neste trabalho são, a saber: composto (1), composto (2) e composto (3), em que LIT representa uma forma parcialmente hidrolisada de LIT. Os complexos 1 e 2 são os primeiros compostos binucleares do ligante LIT descritos. Neles, os centros metálicos são tetracoordenados e apresentam uma ponte exógena acetato coordenada nas formas bidentada, para o composto 1, e monodentada, para 2. Esta diferença na coordenação da ponte se dá, provavelmente, devido aos distintos arranjos geométricos em torno dos metais: enquanto o zinco apresenta um arranjo tetraédrico, o cobre mostra um do tipo quadrático. O complexo 3 é binuclear, composto por um dímero altamente simétrico envolvendo, como dito acima, uma forma parcialmente hidrolisada de LIT. Os centros metálicos são hexacoordenados, ligados por pontes endógenas fenólicas. Tanto 2 quanto 3 são silenciosos ao EPR. Foi realizado também um ensaio de toxicidade aguda em Artemia salina para as espécies hidrossolúveis LIT e complexo 1. Este ensaio mostra boa correlação com a atividade citotóxica para alguns tumores sólidos humanos. / [en] Cancer is a name given to a set of more than 100 diseases and among the possibilities of treatment is chemotherapy. After the discovery of the antitumor properties of the coordination complex commonly called cisplatin, it is one of the compounds most used in malignancies. The study of metal complexes had a big boost and some promising copper(II) compounds have been developed. Furthermore, the Schiff bases derived from aromatic aldehydes and amines present a wide range of applications in many areas of research, some of which are pharmacologically used in antihypertensive, hypnotic, and antineoplastic therapy. In this context, in the present study, we synthesized and characterized a binucleating imine ligand, derivative of taurine, already known in the literature: (LIT). New dinuclear Zn(II), Cu(II) and Ni(II) complexes of this ligand were synthesized, and were characterized by the following techniques: vibrational and electronic spectroscopies, CHNS elemental analysis, thermogravimetric analysis, electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and computational molecular modeling. The new compounds obtained in this work are: composite (1), composite (2) composite (3), where LIT represents a LIT partially hydrolyzed form. Complexes 1 and 2 are the first dinuclear compounds of the LIT ligand described. In these, metal centers are tetracoordinated, with the presence of an exogenous acetate bridge, which shows a bidentate coordination mode for compound 1 and a monodentate coordination pattern for 2. This difference occurs probably due to different geometrical arrangements around the metal centers: while zinc has a tetrahedral coordination geometry, copper shows one of the square planar type. On the other hand, compound 3 a dinuclear complex, which is composed of a highly symmetric dimer involving, as mentioned above, a partially hydrolyzed form of LIT. The hexacoordinated metal centers are connected by two endogenous phenolic bridges. Both 2 and 3 are EPR silent. An acute toxicity test on Artemia salina shrimp was also carried out for the hydro-soluble species LIT and 1. This assay shows good correlation with cytotoxic activity for some human solid tumors.

Les travaux de thèse retranscrits dans ce mémoire ont pour sujet l’élaboration de nouveaux ligands pour la coordination de métaux et l’application des complexes correspondants pour la catalyse et la thérapie.La première partie du manuscrit traite de l’élaboration de ligands phosphine-diène, de leurs analogues saturés et des complexes arène-ruthénium correspondants. Le départ d’arène permet au ligand phosphine-cycloheptadiène de former avec le ruthénium un complexe bimétallique cationique où le ligand est chélate κ-P/diène-η4. Ces complexes ont été appliqués en catalyse pour l’addition radicalaire par transfert d’atome (ATRA) de CCl4 au styrène. Lors de l’utilisation de conditions dures, la supériorité des complexes « diène » a pu être mise en évidence par rapport aux analogues saturés.La seconde partie rapporte le développement de nouveaux analogues de base de Schiff : les « salicylamidines ». L’utilisation de différentes voies de synthèse a permis d’obtenir plusieurs générations de ligands. Ils ont été utilisés pour la coordination de métaux et sont particulièrement adaptés à la formation de complexes avec le zinc et l’aluminium. Certains de ces composés ont été utilisés pour la polymérisation par ouverture de cycle (ROP) de lactides et ont démontré une bonne activité.La dernière partie concerne la synthèse et l’évaluation de complexes métalliques comme agents anticancéreux. Des complexes phosphine-or et phosphine-ruthénium ont été synthétisés et évalués pour leur activité antiproliférative. Les complexes phosphine-or présentent une activité remarquable, meilleure que le cisplatine. La nature de l’arène des complexes phosphine-ruthénium influe fortement sur leur activité, les dérivés « benzoate d’éthyle » donnent des cytotoxicités significativement meilleures que les analogues « p-cymène ». Des complexes de titane et de zirconium avec un ligand de type aza-dipyrrométhène ont été synthétisés. Une étude préliminaire de leurs propriétés photophysiques a été réalisée et a indiqué que les composés étaient fluorescents. L’étude de leur propriété anticancéreuse a démontré une faible cytotoxicité. / The subject of this thesis concerns the development of new ligands, their coordination chemistry, and the synthesis of the corresponding metal complexes for catalysis and therapy.The first part of this work relates to the synthesis of diene-phosphine ligands, their saturated analogs, and the corresponding arene-ruthenium complexes. Arene decoordination allows the formation of a cationic bimetallic complex where the ligand is diène-η4/κ-P coordinated to the ruthenium. These complexes have been applied to atom transfer radical addition (ATRA) of CCl4 to styrene. When harsh reaction conditions are used, the superiority of the “diene” complexes is highlighted comparing to saturated analogs.The second part concerns the development of new Schiff base analogs: the “salicylamidines”. Several ligand generations have been obtained following different synthetic paths. They have been used for metal coordination, and are especially well-suited for the formation of zinc and aluminium complexes. Some of the compounds have been applied to ring opening polymerization (ROP) of lactides, and demonstrated good activity.The last part reports on the synthesis and assessment of metal-based anticancer agents. Some phosphine-gold and phosphine-ruthenium complexes have been synthesized and tested for their antiproliferative activity on several cancer cell lines. The phosphine-gold complexes showed impressive activities, better than cisplatine. Activity of phosphine-ruthenium is strongly influenced by the nature of the arene, ethyl benzoate derivatives are significantly more cytotoxic than p-cymene ones. Titanium and zirconium complexes with aza-dipyrromethene ligand were synthesized. Preliminary photophysical study was performed and indicated fluorescence. Their anticancer properties were assessed, and they are only poorly cytotoxic.

Plusieurs molécules nouvelles ont été obtenues à partir du Gossypol, extrait des graines de cotonnier. Dans la première partie, de nouvelles bases de Schiff du gossypol et de la gossypolone ont été synthétisées, les énantiomères du gossypol et leurs bases de Schiff sont optiquement stables, tandis que, les énantiomères de la gossypolone ne sont pas stables à température ambiante, mais il est possible de les observer vers 0°C. La cytotoxicité de ces bases de Schiff a été évaluée principalement sur des cellules KB, la méthylimine et l'éthylimine de la gossypolone sont les plus toxiques (IC50= 0.8 et 1.2 µM). La toxicité du gossypol et de la gossypolone augmente quand les tests sont effectués en absence de sérum et elle diminue en présence de catalase ou de mannitol dans le milieu de culture. L'énantiomère (-)-gossypol est plus toxique que le (+)-gossypol, ceci est aussi valable pour les bases de Schiff des énantiomères du gossypol. Dans la deuxième partie, une nouvelle classe de dérivés du gossypol et de la gossypolone, les dithianes et les dithiolanes, a été développée. Les dithianes/dithiolanes du gossypol et de la gossypolone ont été synthétisés par action de dithiols en présence d'éthérate de trifluoroborate. La même réaction effectuée avec les monothiols, conduit à des mélanges complexes. L'action du propanedithiol ou de l'ethanedithiol sur le tetraméthyle ou l'hexaméthyle éthers du gossypol ne conduit pas aux dithianes ou dithiolanes attendus mais à de nouveaux dérivés cycliques. La toxicité de ces nouveaux thio-dérivés sur les cellules KB est assez modeste, mais sous l'action de NO ou d'un sel de nitrosonium, ces dérivés se transforment en dérivés plus toxiques dans le cas du gossypol ou régénèrent la molécule de départ dans le cas de la gossypolone. Nous formulons l'hypothèse que dithianes et dithiolanes du gossypol et de la gossypolone pourraient être des modèles de prodrogues ciblées sur les cellules exprimant de fortes concentrations d'oxyde nitrique.

La tagatose-1,6-biphosphate aldolase de Streptococcus pyogenes est une aldolase qui fait preuve d'un remarquable manque de spécificité vis à vis de ses substrats. En effet, elle catalyse le clivage réversible du tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate (TBP), mais également du fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP), du sorbose-1,6-bisphosphate et du psicose-1,6-bisphosphate, quatre stéréoisomères, en dihydroxyacétone phosphate (DHAP) et en glycéraldéhyde-3-phosphate (G3P). Aldolase de classe I, qui donc catalyse sa réaction en formant un intermédiaire covalent obligatoire, ou base de Schiff, avec son susbtrat, la TBP aldolase de S. pyogenes partage 14 % d’identité avec l’enzyme modèle de cette famille, la FBP aldolase de muscle de mammifère. Bien que le mécanime catalytique de la FBP aldolase des mammifères ait été examiné en détails et qu’il soit approprié d’en tirer des renseignements quant à celui de la TBP aldolase, le manque singulier de stéréospécificité de cette dernière tant dans le sens du clivage que celui de la condensation n’est toujours pas éclairci. Afin de mettre à jour les caractéristiques du mécanisme enzymatique, une étude structurale de la TBP aldolase de S. pyogenes, un pathogène humain extrêmement versatile, a été entreprise. Elle a permis la résolution des structures de l’enzyme native et mutée, en complexe avec des subtrats et des inhibiteurs compétitifs, à des résolutions comprises entre 1.8 Å et 2.5 Å. Le trempage des cristaux de TBP aldolase native et mutante dans une solution saturante de FBP ou TBP a en outre permis de piéger un authentique intermédiaire covalent lié à la Lys205, la lysine catalytique. La determination des profils pH de la TBP aldolase native et mutée, entreprise afin d'évaluer l’influence du pH sur la réaction de clivage du FBP et TBP et ìdentifier le(s) résidu(s) impliqué(s), en conjonction avec les données structurales apportées par la cristallographie, ont permis d’identifier sans équivoque Glu163 comme résidu responsable du clivage. En effet, le mode de liaison sensiblement différent des ligands utilisés selon la stéréochimie en leur C3 et C4 permet à Glu163, équivalent à Glu187 dans la FBP aldolase de classe I, d’abstraire le proton sur l’hydroxyle du C4 et ainsi d’amorcer le clivage du lien C3-C4. L’étude du mécanimse inverse, celui de la condensation, grâce par exemple à la structure de l’enzyme native en complexe avec ses substrats à trois carbones le DHAP et le G3P, a en outre permis d’identifier un isomérisme du substrat G3P comme possible cause de la synthèse des isomères en C4 par cette enzyme. Ce résultat, ainsi que la decouverte d’un possible isomérisme cis-trans autour du lien C2-C3 de la base de Schiff formée avec le DHAP, identifié précedemment, permet de cerner presque complètement les particularités du mécanisme de cette enzyme et d’expliquer comment elle est capable de synthétiser les quatres stéréoisomères 3(S/R), 4(S/R). De plus, la résolution de ces structures a permis de mettre en évidence trois régions très mobiles de la protéine, ce qui pourrait être relié au rôle postulé de son isozyme chez S. pyogenes dans la régulation de l’expression génétique et de la virulence de la bactérie. Enfin, la résolution de la structure du mutant Lys229→Met de la FBP aldolase de muscle en complexe avec la forme cyclique du FBP, de même que des études cristallographiques sur le mutant équivalent Lys205→Met de la TBP aldolase de S. pyogenes et des expériences de calorimétrie ont permis d’identifier deux résidus particuliers, Ala31 et Asp33 chez la FBP aldolase, comme possible cause de la discrimination de cette enzyme contre les substrats 3(R) et 4(S), et ce par encombrement stérique des substrats cycliques. La cristallographie par rayons X et la cinétique enzymatique ont ainsi permis d'avancer dans l'élucidation du mécanisme et des propriétés structurales de cette enzyme aux caractéristiques particulières. / Tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolase from Streptococcus pyogenes is a class I aldolase that shows a lack of stereospecificity that is rare in enzymes in general, and in aldolases in particular. This aldolase catalyzes the reversible cleavage of tagatose-1,6-bisphosphate (TBP), fructose-1,6-bisphosphate (FBP), sorbose-1,6-bisphosphate and psicose-1,6-bisphosphate, four stereoisomers, in dihydroxyacetone phosphate (DHAP) and glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate (G3P). A class I aldolase, the aldolase TBP S. pyogenes shares 14 % identity with the model enzyme of this family, mammalian FBP aldolase. Although the catalytic mechanism of the class I FBP aldolase has been examined in detail and it is appropriate to infer information as to the class I TBP aldolase, the singular lack of specificity of the latter enzyme both in the direction of cleavage and condensation is still not elucidated. To better comprehend the characteristics of the enzymatic mechanism, a structural study of the TBP aldolase of S. pyogenes, an extremely versatile human pathogen, has been undertaken. It has allowed the resolution of high resolution structures of the native and mutated enzyme in complex with subtrates and competitive inhibitors. These same structures allowed us to gain information as to the active site of the enzyme in general and the catalytic residues in particular. TBP aldolase native and mutated soaked in a saturated solution of FBP or TBP also trapped an iminium intermediate covalenty bound to Lys205, the Schiff base-forming lysine. The determination of the pH profiles of the native and mutated enzyme, carried out to assess the influence of pH on FBP and TBP cleavage and identify the residue(s) involved, in conjunction with the structural data provided by crystallography, identified unequivocally Glu163, corresponding to Glu187 in FBP aldolase, as the residue responsible for substrate cleavage. The substantially different binding mode of the ligands, according to the stereochemistry of their C3 and C4 carbons, indeed allows Glu163 to abstract the proton in C3-OH and thus initiate C3-C4 bond cleavage. The study of the inverse mechanism, the condensation one, using for instance the crystallographic structure of native TBP aldolase in complex with DHAP and G3P, its three carbons substrates, has led us to believe that a possible isomerism of the G3P substrate was the reason for the synthesis of both C4 isomers by this enzyme. This result, as well as the discovery of a possible cis-trans isomerism around the C2-C3 bond of the Schiff base formed with DHAP, identified previously, almost completely elucidated the features of this enzyme`s mechanism. In addition, these structures have highlighted three highly mobile regions of the protein, which may be related to the role of its isozyme in the regulation of gene expression and virulence in S. pyogenes. Lastly, the resolution of the structure of the FBP aldolase mutant Lys229 → Met in complex with the cyclic form of FBP, as well as crystallographic studies of the corresponding mutant in TBP aldolase, Lys205→Met and ITC experiments, allowed the identification of two particular residues, Ala31 and Asp33 in FBP aldolase, as responsible for this enzyme discrimination against 3(R) 4(S) substrates, by steric hindrance of the cyclic substrates. X-ray crystallography, enzyme kinetics and isothermal calorimetry thus enabled advances in the elucidation of the mechanism and structural properties of this enzyme with singular characteristics.

Tesis por compendio / [ES] La presente Tesis Doctoral plantea el desarrollo de sistemas antimicrobianos basados en el anclaje covalente reversible de aldehídos de origen natural con actividad antimicrobiana en películas de quitosano para su aplicación en el envasado de alimentos. En primer lugar, se desarrolló un protocolo para la formación de bases de Schiff o iminas de diferentes aldehídos en películas de quitosano. Estas iminas son producto de la condensación de los grupos amino primarios del quitosano con los grupos carbonilo del aldehído. El anclaje de dichos aldehídos, en su mayoría de elevada volatilidad, permite su estabilización a largo plazo en estructuras poliméricas, facilitando su manejo. Las iminas son hidrolizables, y dicha hidrólisis está favorecida a pH < 5, por lo que la naturaleza reversible del enlace ofrece un mecanismo para controlar la liberación del antimicrobiano. Previamente a su anclaje, se evaluó la capacidad antimicrobiana de los aldehídos frente a diversos microorganismos patógenos y alterantes alimentarios. Se caracterizó el enlace imina mediante técnicas espectroscópicas y se cuantificó la incorporación del aldehído a la película de quitosano mediante análisis elemental. Adicionalmente otras propiedades funcionales del material fueron evaluadas, como propiedades térmicas, ópticas o de absorción de agua. En segundo lugar, se evaluó la reversibilidad del enlace imina o base de Schiff por el contacto con soluciones acuosas de diferente acidez. La respuesta al pH de las películas permitió determinar la mayor estabilidad del enlace imina a pH neutros, mientras que a pH ácidos resultó más hidrolizable, permitiendo así una mayor liberación del aldehído anclado. Las películas activas desarrolladas mostraron una buena respuesta antimicrobiana contra Botrytis cinerea y Penicillium expansum, al someterlas a una solución de pH ácido. La respuesta antimicrobiana de las películas se debió exclusivamente a la liberación del aldehído al espacio de cabeza tras la hidrólisis de la imina. La estructura química de los aldehídos tuvo un impacto significativo en la formación de iminas y en las propiedades de la película, así como en su reversibilidad. Así, la presencia del doble enlace (Ca=Cß) en aldehídos a,ß-insaturados podría generar otro tipo de enlaces como la adición de Michael, permitiendo obtener matrices entrecruzadas y más estables que sus análogos saturados. El grado de entrecruzamiento y propiedades de estas películas puede ser modulado por el pH del medio empleado en su síntesis. Para la aplicación tecnológica de las películas antimicrobianas de quitosano con los volátiles anclados reversiblemente, se trabajó con productos de postcosecha frescos o mínimamente procesados. Se empleó la respuesta al pH de las películas siguiendo diferentes estrategias. Por una parte, el sistema se incorporó en el envasado de moras frescas, para ello, se diseñó un envase de doble fondo dónde depositar las películas junto con el medio activador. Se redujo satisfactoriamente el crecimiento de hongos sobre la superficie de la fruta, aumentando el tiempo de vida útil de las moras envasadas de 3 a 12 días. Por otra parte, se envasó piña fresca cortada empleando el mismo diseño del envase, de forma que el jugo ácido exudado por la piña durante su almacenamiento catalizó la hidrólisis de la imina. Las películas activas mejoraron la calidad y redujeron la carga microbiana habitual de la piña, observando una reducción notable respecto al control a partir del día 9. Por último, la actividad antimicrobiana de las películas activas se evaluó en un alimento líquido refrigerado inoculado con E. coli. La acidez del zumo provocó la liberación del aldehído al medio inhibiendo el crecimiento del patógeno. Las películas de quitosano con los aldehídos anclados presentaron respuesta al pH, mostrando una mayor capacidad antimicrobiana al ser sometidas a pH ácido, y pudiendo emplearse en el diseño de envases activos antimicrobianos. / [CA] Aquesta Tesi Doctoral planteja el desenvolupament de sistemes antimicrobians basats en l'ancoratge covalent reversible d'aldehids d'origen natural amb activitat antimicrobiana en pel·lícules de quitosà per aplicar-les a l'envasament d'aliments. En primer lloc, es va desenvolupar un protocol per a la formació de bases de Schiff o imines de diferents aldehids en pel·lícules de quitosà. Aquestes imines són el producte de la addició nucleòfila dels grups amino del quitosà al carbonil de l'aldehid que s'ancorarà. L'ancoratge d'aquests aldehids, majoritàriament d'elevada volatilitat, permet la seva estabilització a llarg termini en estructures polimèriques, facilitant-ne el seu maneig. Les imines són hidrolitzables, i aquesta hidròlisi està afavorida a pH < 5, per la qual cosa la naturalesa reversible de l'enllaç ofereix un mecanisme per controlar l'alliberament de l'antimicrobià. Prèviament a la incorporació d'aquests compostos a les pel·lícules de quitosà, es va avaluar la capacitat antimicrobiana dels aldehids davant de diversos microorganismes patògens i alterants d'aliments. Es va caracteritzar l'enllaç imina mitjançant tècniques espectroscòpiques i es va quantificar la incorporació de l'aldehid a la pel·lícula de quitosà mitjançant anàlisi elemental. Addicionalment, altres propietats funcionals del material van ser avaluades, com a propietats tèrmiques, òptiques o d'absorció d'aigua, verificant la modificació del polímer. En segon lloc, es va avaluar la reversibilitat de l'enllaç imina o base de Schiff pel contacte amb solucions aquoses de diferent acidesa. La resposta al pH de les pel·lícules va permetre determinar la major estabilitat de l'enllaç imina a pH neutres, mentre que a pH àcids va resultar més hidrolitzable, permetent així un alliberament més gran de l'aldehid ancorat. Les pel·lícules actives desenvolupades van mostrar una bona resposta antimicrobiana contra Botrytis cinerea i Penicillium expansum,la qual és deguda exclusivament a l'alliberament de l'aldehid a l'espai de cap després de la hidròlisi de la imina. L'estructura química dels aldehids va tenir un impacte significatiu en la formació d'imines i en les propietats de la pel·lícula, així com en la reversibilitat. Així, la presència del doble enllaç (Ca=Cß) en aldehids a,ß-insaturats podria generar un altre tipus d'enllaços com l'addició de Michael, permetent obtenir matrius entrecreuades i més estables que els seus anàlegs saturats, el qual pot ser modulat pel pH del medi emprat a la síntesi. Per a l'aplicació tecnològica de les pel·lícules antimicrobianes de quitosà amb els volàtils ancorats reversiblement, es va treballar amb productes de postcollita frescos o mínimament processats. Es va emprar la resposta al pH de les pel·lícules seguint diferents estratègies. D'una banda, el sistema es va incorporar a l'envasat de móres fresques, per això es va dissenyar un envàs de doble fons on dipositar les pel·lícules juntament amb el medi activador a pH àcid. Es va reduir satisfactòriament el creixement de fongs sobre la superfície de la fruita, augmentant el temps de vida útil de les móres envasades de 3 a 12 dies. D'altra banda, es va envasar pinya fresca tallada emprant el mateix disseny de l'envàs, de manera que el suc àcid exsudat per la pinya durant el seu emmagatzematge va afavorir la hidròlisi de la imina. Les pel·lícules actives van millorar la qualitat i van reduir la càrrega microbiana habitual de la pinya, observant una reducció notable a partir del dia 9. Per acabar, l'activitat antimicrobiana de les pel·lícules actives es va avaluar en un aliment líquid refrigerat i inoculat amb E. coli. L'acidesa del suc va provocar l'alliberament de l'aldehid al medi inhibint el creixement del patogen. Les pel·lícules de quitosà amb els aldehids ancorats van presentar resposta al pH, mostrant una major capacitat antimicrobiana en ser sotmeses a pH àcid, i podent emprar-se en el disseny d'envasos actius antimicrobians. / [EN] This Doctoral Thesis proposes the development of antimicrobial systems based on the reversible covalent anchoring of naturally occurring aldehydes with antimicrobial activity in chitosan films for their application in food packaging. First, a protocol for the formation of Schiff bases or imines of different aldehydes on chitosan films was developed. These imines are the product of the condensation of the primary amino groups of chitosan with the carbonyl groups of the aldehyde. The immobilization of these aldehydes, most of which are highly volatile, allows their long-term stabilisation in polymeric structures, facilitating their handling. The imines are hydrolysable, and its hydrolysis is favoured at pH < 5, so the reversible nature of the bond provides a mechanism to control the antimicrobial release. Prior to the incorporation of these compounds into chitosan films, the antimicrobial capacity of aldehydes was evaluated against various pathogenic and food spoilage microorganisms. The formed imine bond was characterised by spectroscopic techniques and the incorporation of the aldehyde into the chitosan film was quantified by elemental analysis. Additionally, other functional properties were evaluated, such as thermal, optical and water absorption properties, verifying the modification of the polymer. Secondly, the reversibility of the imine bond or Schiff's base was evaluated by contact with aqueous solutions of different acidity. The pH response of the films allowed determining the higher stability of the imine bond at neutral pH, while at acidic pH it was more hydrolysable, leading a higher release of the anchored aldehyde The developed active films showed a good antimicrobial response against Botrytis cinerea and Penicillium expansum, especially when subjected to an acidic pH solution. The antimicrobial response of the films was exclusively due to the aldehyde released into the headspace after imine hydrolysis. The chemical structure of the aldehydes had a significant impact on imine formation and film properties, as well as on their reversibility. Thus, the presence of the double bond (Ca=Cß) in a,ß-unsaturated aldehydes could generate other types of bonds such as Michael addition, allowing cross-linked polymer, which are more stable than their saturated analogues. The degree of cross-linking and properties of these films can be modulated by the pH of the medium used in their synthesis. For the technological application of chitosan antimicrobial films with reversibly grafted volatiles, fresh or minimally processed post-harvest products were used. The pH response of the films was used following different strategies. On the one hand, the system was incorporated in the packaging of fresh blackberries, for this purpose, a double-bottom package was designed to deposit the films together with the activating medium at acid pH. The solution was added at the time of fruit packaging and allowed the imine bond to be hydrolysed subsequently the aldehyde release into the headspace where it exerted its function. Fungal growth on the fruit surface was successfully reduced, increasing the shelf life of the packed blackberries from 3 to 12 days. Moreover, fresh cut pineapple was packaged using the same packaging design, so that the exuded juice by the pineapple during storage favoured the imine hydrolysis. The active films improved the quality and reduced the usual microbial load of the pineapple, with a noticeable reduction compared to the control from day 9 onwards. Finally, the antimicrobial activity of the active films was evaluated in a refrigerated liquid food inoculated with E. coli. The acidity of the juice resulted in the release of aldehyde into the medium inhibiting the growth of the pathogen. The aldehyde immobilization in chitosan films were pH-responsive, showing a higher antimicrobial capacity when subjected to acidic pH, which can be used in the design of antimicrobial active packaging. / The authors acknowledge the financial support of the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation (Grants RTI2018-093452-B- I00, MAT2017-83014-C2-2P and BES-2016-077380 funded by MCIN/AEI/10.13039/501100011033 and by ERDF A way of making Europe) / Heras Mozos, R. (2022). Envases activos basados en el anclaje covalente reversible de compuestos antimicrobianos en quitosano [Tesis doctoral]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/188950 / Compendio