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I takt med den ökade digitaliseringen i samhället har sociala medier blivit en allt större del av människors vardag. Att exponeras för det rådande kroppsidealet är idag enklare än någonsin, vilket särskilt anses påverka unga kvinnor och deras förhållande till sina kroppar. Syftet med denna kunskapsöversikt var att sammanställa tidigare forskning kring ämnet för att belysa hur kroppsidealet på sociala medier porträtterades för unga kvinnor och hur det påverkade deras kroppsuppfattning, för att vidare identifiera skyddsfaktorer i deras användning av sociala medier. Resultatet indikerade på att redigering av bilder, publicering av selfies och en konstant jämförelse med andra bidrog till ett större kroppsmissnöje i strävan efter att nå ett smalhetsideal som många gånger är svåruppnåeligt. En medvetenhet om verkligheten som finns bakom den perfekta ytan kunde enligt unga kvinnor verka som en skyddsfaktor för att erhålla en positiv kroppsuppfattning. Vidare ansågs djupare kunskap kring ämnet genom utbildning vara ytterligare en skyddsfaktor för att belysa den problematik som kroppsidealet på sociala medier medför i unga kvinnors vardag. / Due to the increasing digitalisation in society, social media has become a huge part of people’s everyday lives. Being exposed to the prevailing body ideal is easier today than ever, which is especially considered to affect young women and their relationship to their bodies. The purpose of this literature study was to, through a compilation of previous research on the subject, shed a light on how the body ideal on social media is portrayed for young women and furthermore how it affected their body perception, in order to identify protective factors that counteract this. The results indicated that editing photos, publishing selfies and a social comparison with others contributed to a greater body dissatisfaction in the quest to reach an often unrealistic thinideal. According to young women, an awareness of the reality behind the perfect surface was a major contribution to obtaining a positive body image. Disseminating knowledge about the subject through education was thus considered to be beneficial in order to describe the problems that the body ideal on social media entailed in young women’s everyday lives.

The classic distinction between the body schema and the body image received renewed interest in cognitive psychology, in part because of the attempts by the leading psychologist Charles Spence and his co-authors to synthesise a mounting body of research into the multisensory nature and functional properties of the neural structures in primate cortex that are sensitive and responsive to cross-modal stimuli generated from the body and objects located close to the body, and the famous rubber hand illusion which purported to illustrate how the perception and understanding of what counts as one’s body, i.e., our body image, can be manipulated to include foreign, body-part-like, objects such as a rubber hand. This approach was intended to settle age old questions about how the body schema – the system sub-personal sensorimotor system that shapes, facilitates and regulates motor control – is implemented in the brain and address historic confusions about how the body schema should be understood as an explanatory concept, as well as the problems surrounding the body schema and image distinction on the grounds of the persistent conflation between the two concepts. However, after offering several proposals as to how the body schema should be used to organise and interpret the empirical data, the distinction fell out of favour with Spence and his colleagues on the grounds of the very problems they intended to resolve. The proposed solution is an alternative theoretical framework that, I shall argue, never materialised. Instead, the various definitions they disseminate, I will claim, simply serve to further perpetuate the same problems and confusions about the body schema. Thus, the current state of the literature on the body image and schema in cognitive psychology is in dire need of a conceptual framework that would help us situate and interpret the important empirical data. I propose that we revisit the philosophical debates that were inspired by the philosopher Shaun Gallagher as part of his project to provide a conceptual analysis of the body schema and image distinction and vindicate its status as an important explanatory device for the explanatory ambitions of embodied cognition. Gallagher’s analysis opens up important questions about how the sub-personal multisensory processes of the body schema not only facilitate moment-by-moment motor behaviours, but how they shape and optimise motor control across developmental timelines, as well the importance of the embodied configuration of an agent and its particular eco-niche for shaping and facilitating its motor behaviours. The second important argument of the thesis is that the response to Gallagher’s analysis has simply served to suppress the line of research that Gallagher inspired because the questions his analysis raises have been overshadowed by more general disputes between Gallagher and his opponents about the shape an analysis of the body schema from the perspective of embodied cognition should take. As such, potentially promising lines of research in relation to the body schema have since dried up. As part of my attempt to make progress on the issues that are laid out at the first and second stages of the thesis, the third stage will involve an exploration into the seminal Bayesian approach to understanding cross-modal cue optimisation as it applies to object perception (Banks & Ernst, 2002) and the recent extension of this paradigm to the multimodal sensorimotor processes that underpin motor behaviour in action-oriented cognitive science (e.g., Friston, 2010). The conclusion of the thesis is that the move from an embodied to an action-oriented analysis of the body schema, and the conceptual distinction of which it is part, provides us with the right kind of theoretical resources to begin to pursue fruitful avenues of research that allow us to begin to address the questions set out by Gallagher’s analysis whilst avoiding (some of) the pitfalls that beset the embodied approach. In the final chapter I use this model of the body schema to illustrate how it can provide the basis for working back up towards a comprehensive theory of the body image and schema distinction, which I then bring to bear on current, as-yet-unaddressed, issues in developmental psychology.

Submitted by Maike Costa (maiksebas@gmail.com) on 2016-07-05T11:50:36Z No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivo total.pdf: 1459949 bytes, checksum: 8265ed7ee9fe7c988a0c7970ae31d488 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-07-05T11:50:36Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 arquivo total.pdf: 1459949 bytes, checksum: 8265ed7ee9fe7c988a0c7970ae31d488 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2015-05-08 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / This study it constitutes in a dissertation based on a bibliographic background in which was used as the main source the philosophy’s title ‘Phenomenology of Perception’ by Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Its aim is to analyze the concept of one’s own body and its related spatiality discussed in the mentioned work of the philosopher. At first, it is presented an issue concerning what is the concept of body perceived by physiology as a juxtaposed structure. On the other hand, Merleau-Ponty points to a new understanding of the body, not as constituted bodies, but as one’s own body that is able to recognize its very existence as a living subject, as it is situated in space and not just positioned into it. Trailing the sense of spatiality, Merleau-Ponty discusses about it not in the same wayas addressed by Geography, in which it is possible to think of locations, but still as a point in space where the subject can notice his own body, as perceiver subject. It is the experienced world, lived, in which the subject can recognize his own existence. The notion of space can’t be understood as isolated parts, but with modalities that are associated to the subject. Considering these concepts, it explores also other topics such as intentionality and motricity. The first as a tendency of the one’s own body "to go further" because of its intention to do so and the second as an extension of the body to be able to appropriate the phenomena perceived in order to understand them. It also discusses the concept of perceived world in which the perceiver subject perceives the phenomena and the world in perspective. In addition, he is not alone, as there are other perceiver subjects that carry a peculiarity of ‘I myself’ responsible for the redefinition of the world and the phenomena appropriation through perspectives. There is ‘I myself’ in others, but this can’t be broken into, what is known of it is just what is expressed, communicated. Hence, the importance of the language that is present throughout the discussion not only as verbal language, but as body grammar. / O presente estudo constitui-se em uma dissertação de mestrado fundada em um referencial bibliográfico em que foi utilizada como principal fonte a obra Fenomenologia da Percepção do filósofo Maurice Merleau-Ponty. Seu principal objetivo é analisar o conceito de corpo próprio e sua espacialidade discutida na citada obra do filósofo. A princípio, é apresentado um problema que é o conceito de corpo analisado pela fisiologia como uma estrutura justaposta. Em contrapartida, Merleau-Ponty aponta para uma nova compreensão de corpo, não como constituído de órgãos, mas como corpo próprio, ou seja, que é capaz de reconhecer sua própria existência como um sujeito vivo, pois ele é situado no espaço e não apenas posicionado nele. Tomando como fio condutor o sentido de espacialidade, Merleau-Ponty discorre sobre o mesmo não como um espaço abordado pela Geografia, em que é possível pensar em localizações, mas como um espaço de situação em que o sujeito possa perceber o seu próprio corpo, como sujeito perceptivo. É o mundo experimentado, vivido, no qual o sujeito consegue reconhecer sua própria existência. A noção de espaço não pode ser compreendida como partes isoladas, mas como situação, pois o corpo próprio habita o espaço de seu corpo. Considerando estes conceitos, adentra-se também em outros temas como: a intencionalidade e a motricidade. O primeiro como uma tendência do corpo próprio de se “dirigir para”, porque tem a intenção de fazê-lo, e o segundo como uma extensão do corpo de poder se apropriar dos fenômenos percebidos a fim de compreendê-los. Também é discutido neste trabalho o conceito de mundo percebido em que o sujeito perceptivo percebe os fenômenos e o mundo em perspectivas. Além disso, ele não está sozinho, pois existem outros sujeitos que carregam consigo uma particularidade de Eu segundo a qual este é responsável pela ressignificação do mundo e da apropriação dos fenômenos através de perspectivas. Existe o Eu de outrem, mas este não pode ser invadido, o que se sabe dele é apenas o que é expresso, comunicado. Eis a importância da linguagem que se faz presente em toda a discussão não apenas como linguagem verbal, mas como gramática corporal.

Stereotypa bilder och ideal om vad som är manligt och kvinnligt syns idag tydligt i samhället även inom idrottssammanhang. Idrott har historiskt sett utmanat roller för vad som är manligt respektive kvinnligt. För kvinnor har utövandet av idrott inte alltid varit en självklarhet. Problem kan uppstå när det för kvinnor finns en motstridig bild mellan samhällsnormer och den skapade idrottskroppen. Syftet med denna fenomenologisk studie är att undersöka elitidrottande kvinnors kroppsuppfattning i relation till idrotten och samhällets kroppsideal. Det teoretiska ramverket består av symbolisk interaktionism med fokus på begreppet generaliserade andre. Även teorin sociala jämförelser och begreppen genus och kroppsuppfattning. Studien använder en kvalitativ ansats där det empiriska materialet består av tio semistrukturerade intervjuer. Urvalet bestod av elitidrottande kvinnor i åldrarna 18-30 år, aktiva inom icke-estetiska idrotter. Resultatet visar att idrott och gemenskapen den utgör uppfattas bidra till en mer positiv kroppsuppfattning hos elitidrottande kvinnor. Kroppens funktion och prestation inom idrotten gör att den negativa påverkan yttre faktorer kan ha på kroppsuppfattning får mindre utrymme. Istället väger idrottens krav på kroppen tyngre än samhällets kroppsideal, vilket bidrog till en mer positiv kroppsuppfattning. / Stereotype images and ideals of masculinity and femininity are visible in today´s society, including sports. Sport has historically challenged the roles of what is masculine and feminine and women haven´t always been able to take the practice of sport for granted. A problem can arise when the social norms contradict the psychical body women create in sport. The purpose of this phenomenological study is to explore body perception of elite sportswomen in relation to sport demands and social body ideal. The theoretical framework consists of symbolic interactionism, focusing on the concept of generalized others and furthermore, the theory of social comparison and the concepts of gender and body perception. The study uses a qualitative approach where the empirical material consists of ten semi-structured interviews. The sample consists of elite sportswomen in the age group 18-30 years, all active in aesthetic sports. The result shows that sport and its positive communion is perceived to contribute to a positive body perception among elite sportswomen. Function of the body and its performance is the most important factor and it can decrease the negative impact external factors may have on body perception. Physical requirements are of greater importance than the body ideal. The result of this study is that all women found it common that their sport was of greater importance than body ideals, which contributed to a positive body perception.

Sammanfattning Bakgrund: Forskning visar att ätstörningar hos skolelever blir alltmer vanligt både nationellt och internationellt. Det förekommer mest hos flickor men ökar även hos pojkar. Uppskattningsvis har 10 % ätstörningssymtom. Ca 4-5% av alla flickor har någon gång insjuknat i en allvarlig ätstörning i Sverige. Det är av vikt att upptäcka dessa skolelever då konsekvenserna kan medföra allvarliga hälsoproblem med långdraget, ibland kroniskt förlopp och i värsta fall död. Syfte: Beskriva skolsköterskors erfarenheter av att upptäcka ätstörning hos skolelever. Metod: Tio semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes med skolsköterskor. Intervjuerna analyserades utifrån en kvalitativ innehållsanalys med induktiv ansats. Resultat: Skolsköterskan upptäcker ätstörningar genom sitt hälsofrämjande arbete i både de planerade och spontana hälsobesöken, men också genom att vara uppmärksam på risksignaler hos skolelever som avvikande beteende samt ha ett könssperspektiv. Skolsköterskan är beroende av andras information, såsom pedagoger, kompisar, extern personal, föräldrar och skoleleven själv för att upptäcka ätstörning. Skolsköterskorna har goda kunskaper om ätstörning men ingen stor erfarenhet av att upptäcka detta. Utbildning och tydliga riktlinjer eftersöks då osäkerhet upplevs. Slutsats: Elevhälsovården saknade riktlinjer och arbetsrutiner för att upptäcka ätstörning. Därför är det viktigt att utveckla och modernisera tydliga riktlinjer, vilket skulle kunna bidra till tidig upptäckt av ätstörningar hos skolelever.   Nyckelord: Elevhälsa, hälsobesök, hälsofrämjande, hälsosamtal, information, kroppsuppfattning. / abstract Background: Research shows that eating disorders among school students are becoming increasingly common both nationally and internationally. It occurs most in girls but is also increasing among boys. Estimately 10% suffers from eating disorder symptoms. About 4-5% of girls have ever suffered from a serious eating disorder in Sweden. It is important to discover these schoolchildren as the consequences can lead to serious health problems with the longevity, sometimes chronic progression and in worst case death. Purpose: Describe the school nurse's experience of detecting eating disorders among school students. Method: Ten semistructured interviews were conducted with school nurses. The interviews were analyzed based on a qualitative content analysis with an inductive approach. Result: The school nurse detects eating disorders through his health promotion work in both planned and spontaneous health visits, but also by paying attention to the risk signals of school students as deviating behavior meanwhile having a gender perspective. The nurse was dependent on other people's information, such as educators, friends, external staff, parents and the actual school student to detect eating disorders. School nurses have good knowledge but no experience detecting it. Education and clear guidelines were sought sines uncertainty was experienced in detecting eating disorders. Conclusion: Student health care lacked guidelines and work routines to detect eating disorders. Therefore, it is important to develop and modernize clear guidelines, which would mean that school nurses would discover more schoolchildren and thereby reduce suffering. Keyword: Body perception, health consultation, health promotion, health visit, information, student health.

Sociala medier är en stor del av vår vardag och Instagram som social plattform används som ettsocialiseringsverktyg av en stor andel unga individer idag. Unga kvinnor visar en generellthögre utsatthet jämförelsevis med unga män när det kommer till risk för negativ påverkan påsjälvkänsla och kroppsuppfattning. Denna studie undersökte det eventuella samband som finnsmellan Instagram-användning och försämrat välmående, utifrån begrepp så som självbild,kroppsideal och objektifiering. Detta genomfördes utifrån empiriinsamling av 8 kvalitativaintervjuer av semistrukturerad karaktär med unga kvinnor mellan 22 och 25 år. Studiens syftevar att skapa en uppfattning om hur de använder Instagram samt skapa en förståelse för hurdetta påverkar dem. Till hjälp analyserades empirin med Erving Goffmans (1959) teori omintrycksstyrning, Tomar J. Scheffs (1994) teori om sociala band, samt utifrån ettgenusperspektiv med begreppet genuskontraktet av Yvonne Hirdman (2001) ochperformativitet av Judith Butler (2007), samt objektifieringsteorin av Barbara Fredrickson ochTomi-Ann Roberts (1997). Studiens resultat ger en uppfattning om att unga kvinnor ärmedvetna om de ideal som finns på Instagram, och är något som upprätthålls och i viss månäven eftersträvas. De normer, ideal och beteenden som är dominerande på Instagram följs, trotsupplevelsen av att idealet är medskapare av en osund kroppsuppfattning. Den makt somInstagram utgör, skapar en negativ självbild hos dess användare. / Social media is a big part of our everyday lives and Instagram as a social platform is used as asocialization tool by a large proportion of young individuals today. Young women show agenerally higher vulnerability compared to young men when it comes to the risk of negativeeffects on self-esteem and body image. This study examined the possible link betweenInstagram use and impaired well-being, based on concepts such as self-image, body ideal andobjectification. This was conducted on the basis of empirical collection of 8 qualitativeinterviews of a semi-structured nature with young women between the ages of 22 and 25. Thepurpose of the study was to create an idea of how they use Instagram and create anunderstanding of how this affects them. To help the empirical analysis was analyzed withErving Goffman's (1959) theory of impression control, Tomar J. Scheffs' (1994) theory of socialties, and from a gender perspective with the concept of the gendercontract by Yvonne Hirdman(2001) and performativity by Judith Butler (2007), and objectification theory by BarbaraFredrickson and Tomi-Ann Roberts (1997). The results of the study give a perception thatyoung women are aware of the ideals that exist on Instagram, and are something that ismaintained and to some extent also sought. The norms, ideals and behaviors that are dominanton Instagram are followed, despite the experience that the ideal is a co-creator of an unhealthybody image. The power of Instagram creates a negative self-image among its users.

Denna studie syftar till att fördjupa kunskapen kring kvinnors erfarenheter och upplevelser med användningen av sociala medier, och vad sociala medier har för effekter på kvinnors upplevelser av deras kroppsuppfattning, självkänsla och psykiska hälsa. Detta görs genom utförandet av sammanlagt sex intervjuer med sex personer i åldern 17-30 år, där alla intervjupersoner identifierar sig som kvinnor. Intervjuerna analyseras genom en kvalitativ innehållsanalys. Utifrån resultaten identifieras sju övergripande teman: kvinnors användning av sociala medier, porträtteringen av kroppsidealet, kvinnors personliga erfarenheter i samband med kroppsuppfattning, kvinnors personliga erfarenheter i samband med självkänsla, samhällets inflytelse, positiva aspekter och skyddande strategier och beteenden . Denna studie inkluderar de teoretiska perspektiven: feministisk praktik, male gaze, objektifieringsteorin, sociokulturell teori, genussystemet och copingstrategier . Resultaten av studien visar på att kvinnorna som intervjuades har blandade känslor och tankar kring sociala medier, där vissa har mer negativa erfarenheter kring sociala medier, medan andra har inspirerats av sociala medier. En gemensam bild som kvinnorna har uttryckt är att de känner att man är mer sårbar för föreställningar om hur kroppen ska se ut och kroppsideal på sociala medier i tidig ålder. / This study aims to deepen the knowledge about women's experiences with the use of social media, and what effects social media has on women's experiences of their body perception, self-esteem and mental health. This is done by conducting a total of six interviews with six people aged 17-30, where all participants identify as women. The interviews are analyzed through a qualitative content analysis. Based on the results, seven overarching themes are identified: women's use of social media, the portrayal of the body ideal, women's personal experiences in connection with body perception, women's personal experiences in connection with self-esteem, society's influence, positive aspects and protective strategies and behaviors. This study includes these theoretical perspectives: feminist practice, male gaze, objectification theory, sociocultural theory and the gender system. The results of the study show that the women who were interviewed have mixed feelings and thoughts about social media, where some have more negative experiences about social media, while others have been inspired by social media. A common image that the women have expressed is that they feel that they are more vulnerable to ideas about what the body should look like and body ideals on social media at an early age.

Bakgrund: En dålig kroppsuppfattning kan påverka välmåendet negativt och medföra en rad olika konsekvenser för den fysiska och psykiska hälsan. Tidigare forskning kring fenomenet kroppsuppfattning är begränsad, särskilt kopplat till yrkesrollen, vilket gör det svårt att förstå arbetets betydelse för kroppsuppfattningen. Syftet med studien var att undersöka kroppsuppfattning och upplevt välbefinnande bland träningsinstruktörer som arbetar på gym. Detta för att öka förståelsen för möjliga faktorer som kan påverka kroppsuppfattningen och välbefinnandet. Metod: Studien har genomförts med hjälp av ett kvalitativt metodval i form av enskilda semistrukturerade intervjuer där totalt 10 deltagare har fått representera resultatet. Resultat: Sammanfattningsvis visade resultatet att de flesta informanter hade både negativa och positiva tankar om den egna kroppen, men där de positiva tankarna dominerade. Den egna kroppen ansågs vara ett värdefullt redskap där det var viktigt för deltagarna att underhålla sitt yttre då klienter ofta föredrog vältränade träningsinstruktörer. Somliga informanter tävlade även i bodybuilding, vilket tenderade att påverka deras välmående negativt. Det framkom även att det finns en större press kring kvinnors utseende än vad det gör för män ur ett samhällsperspektiv. Deltagarnas syn på hälsa sammanfatttas som ett holistiskt synsätt där flera viktiga komponenter behövde samspela med varandra. Konklusion: På grund av den begränsade forskningen finns därför ett behov för att vidare studera kroppsuppfattning utifrån en kvalitativ och kvantitativ aspekt för att ge en tydligare bild av vilka faktorer som påverkar den. / Background: A poor body perception can affect well being in a negative way and lead to detrimental results for both physical and mental health. Previous research about the phenomenon body perception is limited, especially work related, which makes it harder to understand how work can affect body perception. Purpose: To study body perception and the existence of well being amongst training instructors working at the gym. The objective is to increase the understanding of potential factors that may affect body perception and well being. Method: The study was implemented by using a qualitative methodology in the form of individual semi-structured interviews with a total of ten participants. Results: In summary the result shows that most of the participants experienced both negative and positive thoughts about their own body, although the positive thoughts were more common. A well conditioned body was considered a valuable asset in attracting clients since this was preferred. Some of the participants also competed in bodybuilding; however, this tended to have a negative impact on their well being. In a social setting there is a greater expectation about a women’s appearance than it is for men. The participants view on health can be summarized as a holistic approach where several components contributed. Conclusion: Due to the existence of limited research, there is a need for further studies about body perception from a qualitative and quantitative point of view to give a better picture of possible additional factors that affect it.

Title of the thesis: The influence of exercise on subjective perception of our own body in participants of the Feldenkrais method course Aims of the thesis: The aim of this thesis was to deepen the theoretical knowledge of the Feldenkrais method, the basic anatomy of the cervical spine and the construction of the eye. Furthermore, the aim was to clarify the connection of eye movements and cervical spine, and define cervicoocular reflex, vestibuloocular reflex and whiplash syndrome. Then apply this knowledge and explain how one lesson of the Feldenkrais method affects the subjective perception of our own body, and how it can affect the magnitude of the cervical spine ranges. Method: It is a quantitative, experimental research. In the first part of the research, the questionnaire of own design monitored the effect of one lesson of the Feldenkrais method on the subjective perception of our own body in a group of 56 people aged 24 to 79 years, the lesson took part during a three-day course. In the second part of the research, the effect of one Feldenkrais method focused on the movement of eyes and cervical spine was studied in a group of 20 people aged 19 to 27 years. Data to this section was obtained based on input and output measurements using a measuring tape and a goniometer. In addition, a...