Les normes procédurales sont susceptibles d'affecter les stratégies mises en place par les parties à un litige. Nous étudions leur impact sur le volume des contentieux et sur le montant des dépenses engagées par les parties afin de gagner le procès. Ces deux composantes du coût social des litiges sont au coeur des défis que les pays développés doivent relever pour garantir l'effectivité des règles de droit substantiel. Nos travaux portent en particulier sur les règles de preuve, et nous mettons l'accent sur l'opposition entre les règles civilistes et celles de common law.Après avoir défini les contours et les enjeux de notre sujet dans l'introduction générale, nous développons un plan en deux parties. La première partie porte sur le comportement des parties lorsque celles-ci ont la possibilité de parvenir à un accord. Des modèles stratégiques et optimistes sont développés pour appréhender les décisions d'aller en justice et de négocier. La seconde partie est centrée sur le processus de production de preuves qui précède l'audience finale. Nous utilisons des modèles de recherche de rente pour analyser les incitations des parties à engager des dépenses.Les résultats suggèrent que les règles de preuve ont un impact considérable sur le coût social des contentieux. Nous montrons que le volume des litiges en France et aux Etats-Unis peut s'expliquer par les différentes règles de preuve s'appliquant dans ces deux pays. Notre analyse révèle également que les règles de preuves constituent un déterminant majeur du coût privé des litiges et des stratégies de défense des défendeurs. / Procedural rules are likely to affect the strategies of the parties in a dispute. We study their impact on the volume of litigation and on the amount of legal expenses incurred by parties to win the trial. These two components of the social cost of litigation are at the heart of the challenges that must be addressed by developed countries to guarantee the effective enforcement of the substantive law. Our works relate more specifically to rules of proof, and the emphasis is given on the opposition between civilian and common law rules. After defining the scope and the stakes of the thesis in the general introduction, we develop a plan in two parts. Part I studies parties' behavior when they have the possibility to negotiate to avoid a trial. Strategic and divergent expectations models are developed to apprehend parties' decisions to sue and to settle. The second Part is oriented toward the evidence production process preceding the final hearing. We use rent-seeking models to analyze parties' incentives to engage legal expenditures.The results suggest that rules of proof have a substantial effect on the social cost of litigation. We show that the volume of litigation in the US and in France can be explained by the various rules of proof prevailing in these two countries. Moreover, our analysis reveals that the rules of proof constitute a major determinant of the private cost of litigation and of defendant's defense strategies.

Le rôle que joue le tribunal arbitral dans l'établissement du contenu du droit applicable n'est pas déterminé dans la plupart des législations d'arbitrage. Cette défaillance du cadre légal conduit à l'interprétation du principe jura novit curia en matière d'arbitrage international. Certes, une transposition pure et simple dans cette matière dudit principe, tel qu'il est appliqué devant les tribunaux étatiques, n'est pas sans difficulté. Néanmoins, en vue de consolider la confiance des parties dans la justice arbitrale et améliorer sa qualité, le tribunal arbitral doit avoir un rôle prépondérant vis-à-vis du droit applicable. En outre, l'office de l'arbitre doit intégrer l'emprise croissante des principes procéduraux fondamentaux. L'administration de la preuve juridique durant l'instance arbitrale s'accomplit à travers différents outils et méthodes. Ces derniers sont, de nos jours, très harmonisés dans les différentes législations et ce grâce à l'effort considérable déployé par les différentes institutions d'arbitrage. Néanmoins, en dépit de leur utilisation fréquente, de leur évolution croissante et leurs avantages indéniables, certains inconvénients persistent et contredisent parfois les besoins d'efficacité et de célérité recherchés par les compromettants. D'autres méthodes, spécifiques pour la preuve juridique, devraient émerger pour une meilleure administration de la justice. Il ne faut toutefois pas privilégier simplement une solution rapide du litige. Il faut qu'elle soit également acceptable et juste aux yeux des parties. Un outil de contrôle de la phase post-arbitrale, qui vise à vérifier si le contenu «censé» établi du droit applicable est correctement appliqué par l'arbitre aux faits de l'espèce, doit pouvoir exister et être efficace. Une telle mesure doit cependant être respectueuse du principe de non révision au fond des sentences. / The role of the arbital tribunal in the establishment of the content of the applicable law on the merits is not envisaged in most of the arbitration statutes. This brings us to examine the principle ''jura novit curia" and the opportunity of its application to international arbitration. Applying this principle in the same way it is applied before state courts to international arbitration has led to several difficulties. However in order to encourage the parties to resort to arbitration and to increase their trust in this conflict resolution mechanism, the arbitrator must be actively involved in the establishment of the content of the applicable law. Moreover, the "ex officia" attributions of the arbitrator should always comply with the due process principles. The administration of the proof of the applicable law during an arbitration procedure is nowadays standardized in most of the different law systems, due to the continuous efforts of the arbitration institutions. However, and despite the numerous advantages of the current methods of establishment of the applicable law, many difficulties are still encountered, which is diminishing the efficiency and the celerity expected by the parties from the arbitration process. Therefore, news methods should be developed, without however compromising the quality of the justice rendered: a post arbitral control must be implemented in order to verify whether the arbitrator has correctly applied the law on the merits "as previously established" to the case at hand, while respecting the principle of non review of the award on the merits.

The needs of the free trade regime and governments' legitimate regulatory aims in the area of public health protection conflict. Government health measures create barriers to free trade and are thus disciplined by the trade regime. This conflict is addressed in the rules of the World Trade Organization, in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This Agreement uses science to mediate the conflict. The reason for the reliance on science is the view that it provides a neutral, universally-valid discipline and that thus the results of testing health measures for scientific validity would be acceptable to both parties in a dispute. This uncritical approach towards science is called into question. An analysis of the relevant science-based disciplines of the SPS Agreement and their interpretation in WTO dispute settlement shows the flaws in this system. A re-evaluation of the WTO rules governing health regulation is called for. / Law / LL.M.

Prior to 1994, South African taxpayers had little protection from fiscal legislation or the decisions, actions or conduct of the South African Revenue Service (“SARS”) that violated their common law rights. Parliament reigned supreme and in tax matters, the strict and literal approach to the interpretation of statutes was employed, with the judiciary often quoting the mantra that there is “no equity about tax”. The Income Tax Act (Act No 58 of 1962) was littered with discriminatory and unfair provisions based on age, religion, sex and marital status. Even unreasonable decisions taken by SARS could not be reviewed by the judiciary as “unreasonableness” was not a ground for review of the exercise of a discretion by SARS. On 27 April 1994, the constitutional order changed. Parliamentary supremacy was replaced with constitutional supremacy and the rights to privacy, equality, human dignity, property and just administrative action were codified in a Bill of Rights. The codification of these fundamental rights has materially changed the nature and extent of the rights of South African taxpayers. The objective of this thesis, therefore, is to identify, analyse and discuss South African taxpayers’ rights from a constitutional perspective. The following major conclusions can be drawn from the research done: - the judiciary have been forced to reappraise their approach to the interpretation of statutes from a “strict and literal” to a “purposive” approach that is in accordance with the values underpinning the new constitutional order; - new legislation has amended some of the so-called “reverse” onus of proof provisions that were constitutionally unsound – this should result in greater fairness and consistency for affected taxpayers especially in the area of when penalties may be imposed; - the concept of clean hands and good facts can influence the judiciary when arguing that a taxpayer’s right to just administrative action has been violated; and - discriminatory and unfair legislation and conduct on the part of SARS may and should be attacked on a substantive law basis, especially where human dignity is at stake. The overall conclusion is that taxpayers’ rights are more far-reaching than prior to 1994 but still have some way to go before they are fully interpreted and developed. / Accounting Science / D.Compt.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-04-26T20:29:02Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Sandra Miguel Abou Assali Bertelli.pdf: 1096640 bytes, checksum: b399eaac3368f8747244eaa00be6b3fb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-05-08 / This paper aims at analyzing the general aspects of the legal evidence and the importance of the discovery activity for a profitable result in the action. In all its chapters, the study intends to sediment the Idea that the effectiveness of the judgment depends upon full procedural discovery, tending to prestige the reinstatement of the truth of facts and, therefore, grant substantiality to the legal norms as well as integrity to the legal order. In this context, we seek to value the dynamic participation of the judge throughout the discovery activity and in the valuation of conviction elements compiled in the lawsuit, as essential factors to enable the evidence to fulfill its instrumental purposes in the performance of material law, allowing the much sought-after social welfare. The concentrated efforts in these debates converge, above all, to the understanding of the social function of the legal evidence and its usage towards fair and effective solution of the litigation, guaranteeing that the proceeding may be the conductor of social harmony, higher scope of jurisdiction. And to be successful in such goals, we have carried out extensive jurisprudence research, consultations to books, journals and Labor Court sites / O presente trabalho tem por fim a análise dos aspectos gerais da prova judiciária e da importância da atividade instrutória para o resultado útil do processo. Em todos os capítulos, o estudo objetiva sedimentar a idéia de que a efetividade da prestação jurisdicional depende de uma instrução processual plena, tendente a prestigiar o restabelecimento da verdade real dos fatos e, com isso, conferir concretude à norma de direito substancial, bem como integridade ao ordenamento jurídico. Procuramos, neste contexto, valorizar a participação dinâmica do magistrado em todos os momentos da atividade instrutória e na valoração dos elementos de convicção coligidos ao processo, como fator essencial a possibilitar que a prova cumpra sua finalidade instrumental na realização do direito material, proporcionando o tão almejado bem-estar social. Os esforços concentrados nestes debates convergem, acima de tudo, à compreensão da função social da prova judiciária e de sua utilidade para a solução justa e efetiva do litígio, assegurando que o processo seja o veículo condutor da harmonia social, escopo maior da jurisdição. E para lograr êxito em tais metas, realizamos ampla pesquisa doutrinária e jurisprudencial, consultas a livros, a periódicos e a sítios de Tribunais do Trabalho

近年來有關醫療法律糾紛案件有逐漸增加之趨勢，本文嘗試藉由實證分析，剖析目前實務與學理上之不同見解，簡要提出個人淺見。於實證分析前，本論文先就文獻理論作簡略之論述，首要說明醫療行為與醫療糾紛之相關概念，以界定醫師或醫療機構對其醫療行為應負之責任。並從實體法上論述醫療過失民事責任之基礎及其內涵，如醫療契約責任、醫療侵權責任、消保法與醫療法之適用，以及醫療過失之因果關係等。次就程序法上探討民事醫療訴訟舉證責任分配之基本原則，同時就美國法與德國法有關醫療過失舉證責任分配的調整於我國實務上之運用，作概略分析及探討。再者，鑑於法官於具體個案中判斷醫療糾紛之相關要件，往往需將訴訟資料送請醫療專業機構加以鑑定，因此，本文亦加以說明我國醫療鑑定制度運作之現況，並據此指出現行醫療糾紛鑑定問題之所在。 最後，本文就最高法院民事案件，分別從醫療糾紛判決背景資料之「年度」、「醫療機構層級」、「科別」、「上訴人」與「上訴結果」，以及醫療糾紛審判實務，如「醫療過失」、「因果關係的認定」、「民事責任請求權基礎及舉證責任之分配情況」、「告知義務」、「醫療鑑定在醫療糾紛應用」，進行實證分析，並依實證數據成果，提出「醫療科別屬性與醫療糾紛案件量多寡密切攸關」、「法院對於醫師在個案是否盡注意義務，應以理性醫師之注意標準綜合評價」、「針對醫療訴訟特性，適度分配醫病雙方之舉證責任」、「宜建立醫療傷害補償基金制度」、「醫事人員確切履行告知說明義務」、「健全現行病歷表之相關問題」、「關於醫療糾紛鑑定實務」暨「透過消保法填補醫療（院）組織疏失之責任」等八項結論及建議，以供實務與學術研究者未來對於醫療糾紛訴訟案件研析時之參考。 / Recently, legal cases concerning medical dispute have a tendency to increase gradually. This article tries to explore different viewpoints between practice and academic theory by empirical analysis and then briefly indicates some of my humble views. Before doing the empirical analysis, this article will briefly introduce the related literatures and theories. Firstly, explains related concepts between medical behavior and medical dispute to define the liability that doctor and medical institution should bear because of their medical behaviors. Then, discuss the basis and connotation of the civil liability for medical malpractice from the substantive law viewpoint, such as the liability for medical contract, medical tort liability, the implementation of the Consumer Protection Law and the Medical Care Act and the causality from the medical malpractice etc. Secondly, this article will discuss the basic principles of allocation of burden of proof for civil medical dispute from the procedural law viewpoint and in the same time, briefly analyze and research that whether it is appropriate to adopt the allocation of burden of proof for medical malpractice from American and German law in our own practice. Furthermore, respecting the fact that for judges to make their decisions in particular medical dispute cases, they always have to send action materials to professional medical institutes for identification, thus, this article also wants to explain the current situation of implementation of our medical identification system, and points out the problems of current medical dispute identification system accordingly. Lastly, this article will proceed empirical analysis according to the Year, Levels of the medical institutions, Divisions, Appellant, Result of Appeal from the background of the verdicts of the civil medical dispute cases awarded by the Supreme Court and according to the medical malpractice, the determination of the causality, the condition of basis of civil title of claiming and allocation of burden of proof, obligation of informing, medical identification in the medical dispute from the medical dispute trial practice. Base upon these results, this article indicates eight conclusions and suggestions for reference for the active participants and academic researchers in future medical dispute lawsuits: the attribution of the medical care division and the number of the medical dispute cases are closely related, court should do omnibus assessment using the standard of due diligence as a rational doctor to determine whether a doctor fulfill his duty of care in a specific case, with the particularity of medical actions in mind, appropriately allocate the burden of proof between doctor and patient, it is better to establish the compensation foundation system for medical damage, medical personnel should literally perform their obligation of informing, to refine the problems of current medical record, things concerning medical dispute identification practice and using the Consumer Protection Act to fill the vacancy that caused by the negligence of the medical institutions.

By 2050, the world population is projected to exceed nine billion and sustainable development measures are therefore critical. There has been a clear consensus internationally regarding the importance of assessing projects’ environmental impacts as a mean to promote sustainable development. The environmental impact assessment (EIA) system has a fundamental role of being a tool for reaching sustainable development. Therefore, continuously enhancing its quality by evaluating the system is important. This study focused on the quality of the review process in the Swedish EIA system, as it is the last step of quality assurance before the final decision-making. Currently, various authorities are responsible for assessing the quality of the environmental impact statement (EIS), something that can naturally lead to varied review qualities. The purpose of this Master Thesis was to question the quality of the current review process in Sweden’s EIA system and raise awareness as to how it possibly can be improved. An approach to promote consistency in the review process exists in the Dutch EIA system, where a national independent authority built up of experts is set to critically review EISs of complex proposed projects. Objectives of this study were to contribute with research on whether or not Sweden should implement an independent national commission to review the quality of EISs, to identify participants’ views and attitudes regarding the subject and to analyze whether or not it is favorable and possible to change the current system. A comparison with the Dutch review process along with eight semi-structured interviews were completed, and results showed that it is likely that the Swedish review process can improve by implementing a national independent review authority and thus increase the current quality and uniformity. The study also found that it would not lead to any major losses to the current system. By using a national authority, standardized working procedures can be developed and independence can be reached through utilizing impartial reviewers. However, feasible problems include funding regulations and having to modify Swedish EIA legislation. It is also estimated that a national commission would not have sufficient resources to review all incoming EISs, hence, restrictions are required. / År 2050 förväntas världens befolkning överstiga nio miljarder och det är mycket viktigt att vidta åtgärder mot en hållbar utveckling. Det har skett en tydlig internationell enighet om vikten av att bedöma projekts miljöpåverkan som ett medel för att främja en hållbar utveckling. Miljökonsekvensbeskrivningssystemet har en grundläggande roll som verktyg för att nå en hållbar utveckling. Därför är det viktigt att kontinuerligt förbättra dess kvalitet genom att utvärdera systemet. Denna studie fokuserar på kvaliteten av granskningsprocessen i det svenska MKB-systemet, eftersom det är det sista steget i kvalitetssäkringen innan det slutliga beslutsfattandet. För närvarande har olika myndigheter ansvaret för att bedöma kvaliteten på miljökonsekvensbeskrivningen (MKB), vilket naturligtvis kan leda till varierande kvalitet på handläggningen. Syftet med detta examensarbete var att ifrågasätta kvaliteten av den pågående granskningen i det svenska MKB-systemet och öka medvetenheten om hur det möjligen kan förbättras. En strategi för att främja likvärdighet i granskningen finns i det nederländska MKB-systemet, där en oberoende nationell myndighet uppbyggd av experter är satt till att kritiskt granska miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar av komplexa föreslagna projekt. Målet för denna studie var att bidra med forskning om huruvida Sverige bör införa en oberoende nationell kommission för att granska kvaliteten på miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar, att identifiera deltagarnas åsikter och attityder kring ämnet och att analysera om det är fördelaktigt och möjligt att modifiera det nuvarande systemet. En jämförelse med den nederländska granskningsprocessen tillsammans med åtta semistrukturerade intervjuer genomfördes, och resultaten visade att det är troligt att den svenska granskningsprocessen kan förbättras genom att införa en nationell oberoende granskningsmyndighet och därmed öka den nuvarande standarden och enhetligheten. Studien visade också att det inte skulle leda till några större förluster av det nuvarande systemet. Genom att använda en nationell myndighet, kan standardiserade arbetsmetoder utvecklas och självständighet kan nås genom att utnyttja objektiva granskare. Möjliga problem är finansieringsbestämmelser och behovet av att ändra svensk miljölagstiftning. Det är också sannolikt att en nationell kommission inte skulle ha tillräckliga resurser för att granska alla inkommande miljökonsekvensbeskrivningar, i och med det krävs begränsningar.

刑事訴訟制度具有兩大目的，分別是發現真實以及保障被告人權，二者不可偏廢，不可為了發現真實而犧牲被告人權之保障，亦不得為了保障被告之人權，忽視真實之發現。 被告在憲法上受有無罪推定原則之保障，原則上無須證明自己無罪，舉證責任落在身為控方的檢察官身上，檢察官須就被告之犯罪事實予以證明至無合理懷疑之程度，使法官依據其所舉證之內容依自由心證予以衡酌，如未能形成超越合理懷疑之心證門檻時，依照無罪推定原則，即應對被告諭知無罪判決。 目前我國法已明文肯認無罪推定原則的保障，除了被告得因此享有相關之保障外，負責追訴犯罪的檢察官，身為控方，亦應善盡其舉證責任，當使法官形成超越合理懷疑的心證時，方能推翻對被告的無罪推定，對被告諭知有罪判決，然而，控方應負舉證責任縱然作為原則，但不可否認的是，本文認為仍有存在例外的空間，故試圖從舉證責任之架構釐清在無罪推定原則的制度下是否有轉換、調整之空間。 站在當事人對等的天平上，筆者認為立法者考量到特殊案件類型之需求，可以透過立法的方式將某些事項的提出證據責任轉換到被告身上，但說服責任則不可以移轉之，因為被告在訴訟上仍受有不自證己罪原則之保障，要將舉證責任予以移轉，筆者以為歐洲人權法院所形塑之標準可資參考，當爭點具有一定的重要性，且被告的防禦權未完全被剝奪時，當檢察官已就一定犯罪事實予以舉證時，即可將舉證責任轉換到被告身上，如此可使呈現在法庭上的證據越來越多，亦可使真實更容易被發現。 本文以經濟犯罪作為檢討舉證責任轉換可行性之主軸，並以特別背信罪與內線交易作為檢討之適例，試圖檢驗本文架構出的判準之可行性。然礙於篇幅有限，故僅以商業判斷法則及內線交易之抗辯事由作為本文檢討之核心。

Prior to 1994, South African taxpayers had little protection from fiscal legislation or the decisions, actions or conduct of the South African Revenue Service (“SARS”) that violated their common law rights. Parliament reigned supreme and in tax matters, the strict and literal approach to the interpretation of statutes was employed, with the judiciary often quoting the mantra that there is “no equity about tax”. The Income Tax Act (Act No 58 of 1962) was littered with discriminatory and unfair provisions based on age, religion, sex and marital status. Even unreasonable decisions taken by SARS could not be reviewed by the judiciary as “unreasonableness” was not a ground for review of the exercise of a discretion by SARS. On 27 April 1994, the constitutional order changed. Parliamentary supremacy was replaced with constitutional supremacy and the rights to privacy, equality, human dignity, property and just administrative action were codified in a Bill of Rights. The codification of these fundamental rights has materially changed the nature and extent of the rights of South African taxpayers. The objective of this thesis, therefore, is to identify, analyse and discuss South African taxpayers’ rights from a constitutional perspective. The following major conclusions can be drawn from the research done: - the judiciary have been forced to reappraise their approach to the interpretation of statutes from a “strict and literal” to a “purposive” approach that is in accordance with the values underpinning the new constitutional order; - new legislation has amended some of the so-called “reverse” onus of proof provisions that were constitutionally unsound – this should result in greater fairness and consistency for affected taxpayers especially in the area of when penalties may be imposed; - the concept of clean hands and good facts can influence the judiciary when arguing that a taxpayer’s right to just administrative action has been violated; and - discriminatory and unfair legislation and conduct on the part of SARS may and should be attacked on a substantive law basis, especially where human dignity is at stake. The overall conclusion is that taxpayers’ rights are more far-reaching than prior to 1994 but still have some way to go before they are fully interpreted and developed. / Accounting Science / D.Compt.

The needs of the free trade regime and governments' legitimate regulatory aims in the area of public health protection conflict. Government health measures create barriers to free trade and are thus disciplined by the trade regime. This conflict is addressed in the rules of the World Trade Organization, in the Agreement on the Application of Sanitary and Phytosanitary Measures. This Agreement uses science to mediate the conflict. The reason for the reliance on science is the view that it provides a neutral, universally-valid discipline and that thus the results of testing health measures for scientific validity would be acceptable to both parties in a dispute. This uncritical approach towards science is called into question. An analysis of the relevant science-based disciplines of the SPS Agreement and their interpretation in WTO dispute settlement shows the flaws in this system. A re-evaluation of the WTO rules governing health regulation is called for. / Law / LL.M.