A pesca artesanal de pequena escala (ou subsistência) tem sido historicamente pouco estudada. Poucos estudos buscam compreender os fatores que influenciam a pesca nessa escala. Populações humanas que dependem dos recursos naturais apresentam bom conhecimento sobre o ambiente e os recursos explorados. Barramentos de rios são uns dos principais impactos na pesca de águas interiores, e pouco se sabe sobre esses impactos ao longo do tempo. Portanto, informações das populações locais e da pesca de subsistência podem melhorar e complementar o conhecimento científico sobre a pesca e os impactos causados por barramentos. O objetivo desse estudo é analisar as características da dinâmica da pesca artesanal de subsistência no Baixo Rio Tocantins (Amazônia brasileira) através de entrevistas e desembarques pesqueiros. Testamos a eficiência do conhecimento ecológico local de pescadores através de entrevistas no diagnóstico da dinâmica da pesca e de mudanças ambientais decorrentes de barragens em grandes rios (1º capítulo). Também analisamos o rendimento pesqueiro e as variáveis que influenciam na captura de peixes em cinco comunidades de pescadores artesanais do Baixo Rio Tocantins (2º capítulo). Foram realizadas 300 entrevistas com pescadores de nove comunidades ribeirinhas e registrados 606 desembarques pesqueiros em cinco destas comunidades, em 67 dias de amostragem. Através das entrevistas é possível identificar os peixes mais capturados, as artes de pesca e tamanhos de malhas de redes mais utilizadas pelos pescadores, além da sazonalidade da abundância dos peixes. Houve mudança na composição dos desembarques pesqueiros, 22 anos após o barramento. Através das entrevistas com os pescadores, foi possível identificar também quais espécies de pescado aumentaram (Plagioscion squamosissimus), quais diminuíram (Characidae, várias espécies de pacu), bem como quais desapareceram (Semaprochilodus brama) após o barramento. A produção anual e o rendimento financeiro da pesca foram reduzidos em cerca de 55% após o barramento do rio. A maior parte da variação da biomassa de peixes capturada é explicada pelas variáveis ligadas ao esforço e comportamento do pescador: tempo de pesca (35%), número de pescadores (30%) e a distância até local de pesca (20%). Entrevistas demonstraram ser um método rápido, confiável e de baixo custo para obter importantes informações sobre a pesca e os impactos à jusante de uma hidrelétrica em um grande rio amazônico. O conhecimento ecológico local pode complementar pesquisas ecológicas de longa duração de uma maneira rápida e eficiente. Considerar os pescadores, seu conhecimento e seu comportamento na elaboração de planos de manejo pesqueiro adequados com a realidade local, parece ser a maneira mais promissora de garantir a manutenção da biodiversidade, conservação dos recursos pesqueiros e manutenção da pesca artesanal como atividade econômica. / Small-scale artisanal (or subsistence) fisheries have been little studied. Few studies have attempted to understand the factors that influence the fisheries on this scale. Human populations that depend upon natural resources show good knowledge about the environment and the exploited resources. Dams are among the main impacts affecting inland fisheries and there is little knowledge about the impacts of dams on fisheries over time. Information from local populations and subsistence fishing may improve and complement the scientific knowledge on fisheries and dam’s impacts. The aim of this study is to analyze the dynamics of subsistence fishing in the Lower Tocantins River (Brazilian Amazon) through interviews and fish landings. We tested the efficiency of recording fishermen’s local ecological knowledge through interviews for assessment of the fisheries dynamics and environmental changes caused by dams in large rivers (1st chapter). We also analyzed the fishing income and the variables that influence the biomass of fish caught in five fishing communities of the Lower Tocantins River (2nd chapter). We conducted 300 interviews with fishermen in nine riverine communities and recorded 606 fish landings in five of these communities in 67 sampling days. Through interviews it is possible to identify the most caught fish species, the fishing gear and gillnet mesh sizes used by most of the fishermen, and the seasonal fish abundance patterns. The composition of fish landings changed 22 years after the dam’s closure. Through interviews with fishermen, also it was possible to identify the species of fish that increased (Plagioscion squamosissimus), decreased (Characidae, several species of pacu) and even disappeared (Semaprochilodus brama) after the dam’s closure. The annual production and financial income of fishing have been reduced by about 55% after the dam’s closure. Most of the variation in the biomass of fish caught is explained by variables related to the fishing effort and to the fisherman’s behavior , such as fishing time (35%), number of fishermen (30%) and distance to fishing grounds (20%). Interviews with fishermen showed to be fast, reliable and inexpensive methods to obtain important information about the fisheries and the impacts downstream from a dam in a large Amazonian river. The local ecological knowledge of resource users can complement long-term ecological research efficiently. The fishermen, their knowledge and their behavior should be considered when developing fisheries management plans appropriate to local realities. This seems to be the most promising way to ensure the maintenance of biodiversity, conservation of fishing resources, and maintenance of artisanal fisheries as an economic activity.

Submitted by Fabio Sobreira Campos da Costa (fabio.sobreira@ufpe.br) on 2016-09-01T13:19:15Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) MTTolotti_EcologyConservationOceanicWhitetipShark_VF_FichaCatalografica.compressed aprovada.pdf: 5871232 bytes, checksum: 4af848c7c53529f3e28ffa5d085443f1 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2016-09-01T13:19:16Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 1232 bytes, checksum: 66e71c371cc565284e70f40736c94386 (MD5) MTTolotti_EcologyConservationOceanicWhitetipShark_VF_FichaCatalografica.compressed aprovada.pdf: 5871232 bytes, checksum: 4af848c7c53529f3e28ffa5d085443f1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-19 / CAPEs / O objetivo principal da presente tese consistiu em agregar informações ao conhecimento sobre o tubarão galha-branca oceânico (Carcharhinus longimanus), principalmente no que se refere à sua distribuição, índices de abundância e preferências de habitat. Apesar de ser uma espécie muito capturada na pesca oceânica de atuns afins, informações acerca destes aspectos ecológicos são escassas e até mesmo ausentes na literatura relacionada à espécie. A tese é apresentada como um conjunto de capítulos autônomos, representando artigos científicos individuais. No primeiro capítulo-artigo foram discutidos os possíveis efeitos de medidas de manejo restritivas, implementadas recentemente por Organizações Regionais da Pesca Atuneira e que incluem algumas espécies de tubarões oceânicos. Medidas restritivas isoladas terão pouco impacto na redução da mortalidade de tubarões oceânicos. Um conjunto de medidas mitigadoras integradas será mais eficaz na conservação e recuperação das populações dessas espécies. No segundo capítulo-artigo foram analisados dados de captura e esforço de 14.835 lançamentos de espinhel pelágico realizados por embarcações arrendadas da frota atuneira brasileira, nos anos de 2004 a 2010. A CPUE nominal exibiu uma tendência de aumento gradual ao longo dos anos, variando de 0,04 em 2004 para 0,15 em 2010. A CPUE foi padronizada através de uma abordagem delta-GLM, entretanto, o índice de abundância padronizado não diferiu significativamente da CPUE nominal. Os modelos indicaram que as capturas de tubarões galha-branca são maiores para a estratégia de pesca espanhola, que se caracteriza pela utilização de anzóis em profundidades mais rasas. No terceiro capítulo-artigo, a interação entre tubarões galha-branca e a pesca de rede de cerco nos Oceanos Atlântico e Índico foi analisada, com o objetivo de investigar o potencial da utilização do banco de dados dessa pescaria para derivar índices de abundância e determinar tendências populacionais para a espécie. Dados de observadores de bordo da frota francesa combinados com dados históricos da União Soviética foram utilizados na análise. A série temporal combinada incluiu os anos entre 1986 e 2014. No Oceano Atlântico não foi possível determinar uma tendência populacional, uma vez que o índice de ocorrência foi muito baixo e não variou significativamente com o tempo. No Oceano Índico foi observada uma mudança bem-marcada no índice de ocorrência, oscilando em torno de 20% entre meados dos anos 80 e 90 e caindo para menos de 10% a partir de 2005. No quarto capítulo-artigo, a vulnerabilidade do tubarão galha-branca à pesca de espinhel pelágico foi avaliada utilizando dados dependentes e independentes da pesca. Os dados dependentes incluíram informações de diários de bordo (1999- 2011) e observadores embarcados (2004 a 2010), num total de 65.277 lançamentos de espinhel. Os dados independentes foram obtidos a partir de 8 tubarões marcados com marcas do tipo “pop-up satellite archival tag” na área onde a frota de espinhel operou. Locais de marcação e desprendimento das marcas foram relativamente próximos uns dos outros. Entretanto, os indivíduos marcados tenderam a viajar longas distâncias antes de retornar para a área de marcação. Foi observado um certo grau de filopatria à área. “Hotspots” de alta utilização dos tubarões marcados correspondeu à área sob forte pressão pesqueira. Todos os tubarões exibiram uma forte preferência por águas quentes e rasas da camada de mistura, gastando, em média, mais de 70% do tempo acima da termoclina e 95% acima de 120 m. Esse resultado justifica a maior capturabilidade da espécie em espinheis mais rasos. No quinto e último capítuloartigo, os movimentos verticais dos tubarões marcados foram analisados em detalhe. Apesar da distribuição vertical restrita, os dados indicaram que o tubarão galha-branca apresenta padrões de movimento complexos, incluindo padrões de migrações circadianas distintos e mergulhos profundos. O padrão circadiano mais frequentemente observado é caracterizado de um deslocamento à superfície durante o nascer do sol e uma tendência a permanecer em profundidades mais baixas durante o dia. Os movimentos verticais também foram influenciados pela temperatura da superfície do mar, o que pode indicar a ocorrência de termoregulação para espécie. A integração dos resultados de cada capítuloartigo proporcionou boas perspectivas para o desenvolvimento de medidas de mitigação. A evidência em relação à preferência do tubarão galha-branca por águas quentes e rasas é sólida, indicando que a remoção dos anzóis rasos do espinhel pode ser proposta para reduzir a captura incidental da espécie. O fato de variações na CPUE já terem sido observadas, sugere que esta pode ser uma medida eficaz. O comportamento filopátrico observado para o OCS também indica que a espécie pode se beneficiar com a criação de áreas marinhas protegidas. / The ultimate goal of this thesis was to generate knowledge regarding the ecology of the oceanic whitetip shark (Carcharhinus longimanus) and contribute for an ecosystem-based fishery management. The work focuses on the interactions between tuna fisheries and the species and its habitat preferences. Despite being frequently caught on high-sea fisheries, there are wide knowledge gaps regarding the ecology of the oceanic whitetip shark. The thesis is presented as a set of selfcontained standalone chapters, constructed as individual research articles. The first article-chapter provides a discussion concerning pelagic sharks and the recent species-specific banning measures implemented by Regional Fishery Management Organizations (RFMOs) in charge of tuna fisheries. It is unlikely that banning measures alone can reduce the high level of fishing mortality and recover pelagic shark’s depleted populations. Managers should be fully aware that the development and implementation of mitigation measures are critical for a more effective conservation strategy. In the second article-chapter, catch and effort data from 14,835 longline sets conducted by foreign tuna longline vessels chartered by Brazil, from 2004 to 2010, were analyzed. The nominal catch per unit of effort (CPUE) exhibited a gradual increase, varying from 0.04 sharks/1000 hooks in 2004 to 0.15 in 2010. A CPUE standardization was performed using a delta-GLM approach, but the standardized index of abundance did not differ significantly from the nominal CPUE. The models indicated that the catches of oceanic whitetip sharks are higher for the Spanish fishing strategy, which is characterized by the deployment of hooks at shallower depths. In the third article-chapter, the interaction between oceanic whitetip sharks and the purse seine fishery in the eastern Atlantic and western Indian oceans was analyzed, in order to investigate the potential of using this fishery’s database to derive abundance indexes and determine population trends for the species. Observer data from the French purse seine fleet combined with a historic database from the Soviet Union were used in the analyses. The combined time series spanned from 1986 to 2014. The occurrence index was very low for Atlantic Ocean and no marked temporal trend was observed. For the Indian Ocean a well-marked change on the occurrence index was observed, fluctuating around 20% from mid 80’s to mid 90’s and dropping to less than 10% as from 2005. In the fourth article-chapter, a combination of fisheries dependent and independent data was used to assess the vulnerability of the oceanic whitetip shark to pelagic longline fisheries. Fisheries dependent data included information from logbooks (from 1999 to 2011) and onboard observers (2004 to 2010), totaling 65,277 pelagic longline sets. Fisheries independent data were obtained from 8 oceanic whitetip sharks tagged with popup satellite archival tags in the area where longline fleet operated. Tagging and pop-up sites were relatively close to each other, although individuals tended to travel long distances before returning to the tagging area. Some degree of philopatry was observed. High utilization hotspots of tagged sharks fell inside the area under strongest fishing pressure. All sharks exhibited a strong preference for the warm and shallow waters of the mixed layer, spending on average more than 70% of the time above the thermocline and 95% above 120 m. This result explains the higher catchability of the species on shallow longline gear. In the fifth and last article-chapter, the vertical movements of tagged oceanic whitetip sharks were analyzed in detail. Despite its restricted vertical distribution, the analyses reveled that oceanic whitetips perform complex movement patterns, including distinct diel patterns and deep diving behavior. A correlation between vertical movements and sea surface temperature was also observed, suggesting the occurrence of thermoregulation for the species. The combined results of each article-chapter have provided good insights towards the development of mitigation measures. The evidence regarding oceanic whitetip shark’s preference for warm and shallow waters is solid and this information suggests that the removal of the shallow hooks from the longline gear could be proposed as a technique to reduce OCS bycatch. The fact that CPUE variations were already observed suggests that this might be an effective measure. The philopatric behavior observed for the OCS also indicates that the species could benefit from time-area closure measures.

Tuna are of significant global economic importance and a prime food source. Increased levels of fishing have resulted in many stocks being under threat and a number of species are considered to be overfished. The South African tuna industry has had limited management attention from the South African fisheries management agency. A recent development has been an increase in the number of tuna caught by small vessels that target the fresh tuna market in South Africa and overseas. This has highlighted the importance of developing a holistic management plan for the sector and creating an awareness, among vessel owners, of the importance of compliance with initiatives such as the Marine Stewardship Council (MSC). The South African tuna fishery comprises three sectors: baitboat, sport and longline, all of which are currently in need of acquiring more biological and fisheries data. This project was initiated to collate existing information and to collect additional information where possible. This encompassed a qualitative and quantitative assessment of the size and shape of the tuna fishing industry, which included estimates of total catch, effort, catch-per-unit-of-effort (CPUE) and stock structure (obtained through comparative estimates of age and growth), as well as socio-economic and economic information. A technique involving an examination of specific vertebrae was used to obtain age-growth information for T. albacares. These data were used to estimate von Bertalanffy (VBGF) growth parameters: F 2 1. , k 0.1 , and t₀ -0. 1 year. No significant differences in growth parameters were found in yellowfin tuna (Thunnus albacares) from different localities around the South African coast, i.e. from the south eastern Atlantic and the south western Indian Ocean. In addition, growth did not differ between South Africa and other regions (Draganic and Pelzcarski 1984, Fonteneau 1980, Gascuel et al. 1992, LeGuen and Sakagawa 1973, Lehodey and Leroy 1999, Lessa and Duarte-Neto 2004, Shuford et al. 2007, Stequert et al. 1996, Wild 1986, Yang et al. 1969). Further substantiation of the above-mentioned observations was found by recording differences in the sizes of fish caught in the inshore (baitboat and sport fishery vessels) and offshore (large pelagic longline vessels) sectors of South African tuna fisheries. A significant difference between the regions — in terms of the size of fish caught inshore — was noted, with mostly-juvenile fish being caught in KwaZulu-Natal (5.4 ± 3.5kg), sub-adult fish in the Eastern Cape (26.2 ± 13.4kg), and adult fish in the Western Cape (42.3 ± 14.4kg). Since mostly-adult fish were caught offshore by longliners, with no significant differences between regions, it is however possible th at adult fish predominantly inhabit the offshore region. Yellowfin tuna caught by the large pelagic longline fishery in the three managerial zones (A, B and C) were predominantly adult fish of similar size, namely Zone A: 38.9 ± 6.9kg; Zone B: 28.7 ± 4.6kg, and Zone C: 36.0 ± 5.1kg. The recreational ski boat sport fishery has remained stable, in terms of participation, consisting mostly of white middle aged males in the top 25% of household income distribution, having either permanent occupational status or being retired. Fishers within this sector are willing to incur great expense to partake in the fishery and they provide an important economic contribution to coastal towns, particularly in the Eastern Cape. The total catch (of 83t) of yellowfin tuna by the competitive sport fishery within the Western and Eastern Cape regions was considerably lower than that of commercial tuna baitboat catches, which amounted to 186t, and the large pelagic longline sector that caught t in 200. It is however likely that the competitive sport fishery's total yellowfin tuna catch (of 83t in 2009) of the Eastern and Western Cape competitive sport fishery was considerably less than the total yellowfin tuna catches of the whole South African deep-sea sport fishery. Longfin tuna are the primary target species of South Africa‘s baitboat fisheries, comprising an average of 86% of the total catch and generating ZAR49 million in employment income in 2002. South Africa was responsible for 20% of the total longfin tuna annual yield in 2004 in the southern Atlantic Ocean, behind Taiwan with 59%. However, yellowfin tuna only contributes a small percentage towards total catches (8.4 ± 8.2% between 1995 and 2009), generating ZAR1.3 million in employment income in 2002. Of the four vessel categories comprising the tuna baitboat fishery, ski boats had the highest yellowfin tuna CPUE in 2009 (117 ± 62 kg.vessel⁻¹.day⁻¹) and the lowest effort. The ski boats sector is the most opportunistic fishery as they are only active when either longfin or yellowfin tuna are in high abundance. At such times catches are guaranteed, so can be expected to offset expenses. In 2009 the CPUE for yellowfin tuna for 15–19m vessels and freezer deckboats was 12 ± 20kg.vessel⁻¹.day⁻¹ and 3 ± 6kg.vessel⁻¹.day⁻¹, respectively. These vessels specifically target longfin tuna when they are in abundance. Since the start of the tuna baitboat fishery in 1995, there has been a substantial increase in the number of new entrants. In 2002 this sector had a fleet size of 82 vessels with a capital value of ZAR163 million and a total employment income of ZAR58 million, employing 2 173 fishers, of which 87% were black African. The commercial tuna baitboat fleet has subsequently grown to 200 vessels and 3600 crew, with 110 active vessels fishing for a combined fleet average of 46 days per year. There are a high number of owner-operated vessels. Since 2007 the fishery's profit to cost ratio has been low due to the low abundance of tuna stocks off the coast of South Africa, which has resulted in poor catch returns, placing economic pressure on the fishery. The baitboat industry is a low-profit-margin fishery with a total net catch value worth ZAR90 million in 2009 (Feike 2010). The abundance of yellowfin tuna influences profit margins, with very high profits being made when abundance and catches are high. The large pelagic longline fishery has a total allowable effort of 43 vessels of which only 30 vessels fished during 2009, when a reported 766t of yellowfin tuna were caught, representing a total tonnage far in excess of that obtained by the combined effort of the baitboat and sport fishery. It is, however, assumed that considerable underreporting of catches takes place within this fishery, which means that the estimated total net catch value of ZAR100 million could, in fact, be much higher. Such underreporting of catches is of great concern for this fishery, as is the high bycatch of Chondricthians spp. that significantly outweighs imposed regulatory limits (DEAT 2007). The present study demonstrates the current lack of comprehensive catch and effort data for the sport, baitboat and longline fisheries as well as the serious limitations and flaws associated with current databases. Results from the present study have drawn attention to a number of high-priority research needs, as outlined below. (1) A major lack of comprehensive catch and effort data for the sport fishery, which can be rectified by focussing on obtaining more competition data, as well as high-quality catch and effort and socio-economic information, as opposed to relying on information from non-club anglers (Gartside et al. 1999, Williams 2003, Cass-Calay 2008). Acquisition of such data is relatively inexpensive: the location of organized clubs and their frequent competition meetings provide widespread coverage along the Southern African coastline. Such data acquisition efforts have the potential to provide reliable information on spatial catch trends. (2) Validation of vessel catch return data is required for commercial fisheries and on some recent data that has emerged from studies of catch rates and trends for target species, particularly in the longline fishery. In this context it should be noted that the most recent peer-reviewed publications on this exploratory fishery were published more than a decade ago (Kroese 1999, Penny and Griffiths 1999). Additional studies need to be undertaken and journal articles published on the current stock status of South African catches of yellowfin and bigeye tuna and swordfish.

La actividad pesquera del Perú está principalmente sustentada en la anchoveta, a partir de la cual se fabrica harina de pescado, cuya exportación se posiciona en un nivel expectante año tras año. Esta pesquería se viene desarrollando mediante la Ley de Límites Máximos de Captura por Embarcación (LMCE) desde el año 2009, cuyos objetivos se enfocan en la modernización y eficiencia del sector, el fomento del desarrollo sostenido, y el aprovechamiento responsable de los recursos hidrobiológicos (Decreto Legislativo 1084, art.1). En ese sentido, el objetivo de esta investigación es conocer las consecuencias de la implementación de la Ley de LMCE en las exportaciones de harina de pescado del Perú, con Subpartida Nacional 2301.20.11.00, durante el periodo 2009-2018. Se utiliza un enfoque de investigación cualitativa con teoría fundamentada. Para ello, se realizaron entrevistas semiestructuradas a doce profesionales del sector, pertenecientes a las empresas pesqueras e instituciones más importantes del Perú. Como resultado, se validó que la implementación de la Ley de LMCE generó como consecuencia un impacto positivo en las exportaciones de harina de pescado, durante el periodo 2009-2018, mediante un incremento en la calidad y el volumen de producción de harina de pescado Prime y Super Prime, por la cual se obtiene un mejor precio de exportación en el mercado. Sin embargo, se halló que el precio y volumen depende en gran magnitud de factores externos, cuya incidencia se explica en la investigación. Con ello, se brindará las recomendaciones necesarias a los actores involucrados, así como a los futuros investigadores. / Peru's fishing activity is mainly based on anchovy, from which fishmeal is produced, its export is positioned at expectant levels year over year. The anchovy fishery has been developed through the Law of Vessel Capture Maximum Limits (LMCE, by its acronym in Spanish) since 2009, whose objectives are focused on this segment´s modernization and efficiency, the sustained development promotion and the responsible use of hydrobiological resources (Decreto Legislativo 1084, art. 1). In this regard, the aim of this research is to know the consequences of the “LMCE” Law implementation in fishmeal exports from Peru, with Subheading National Tariff 2301.20.11.00, from 2009 to 2018 using a qualitative research approach with grounded theory. Consequently, semi-structured interviews were conducted with 12 professionals that belong to the most important fishing companies and Government Institutions in Peru. As a result, it can be observed that the implementation of the “LMCE” Law caused a positive impact on fishmeal exports, during the period of 2009-2018: with an increase in the quality and volume of Prime and Super Prime fishmeal production, and also a better export price in the market. However, it was found that prices and volume depend on external factors mainly, and this incidence is explained in this investigation. Based on these, there will be recommendations provided to the involved parties, as well as to future researchers. / Tesis

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La télévision traditionnelle, « voix de la France » est un média de masse. Avec un taux d’équipement des foyers de plus de 98%, un taux d’écoute de plus de 3h50 par jour, un chiffre d’affaires publicitaires de plus de 4 Mrd EUR , et des « contenus rendez-vous » assurant des audiences record, cette télévision trône dans le salon et réunit la famille. Jusque dans les années 1980, elle reste placée sous le contrôle du pouvoir politique.Sous la Présidence de François Mitterrand, la télévision se libéralise. De nouvelles chaînes privées et commerciales financées par l’audience et la publicité apparaissent, tandis que le secteur public reste principalement financé par la redevance audiovisuelle. Dans les années 90, l’arrivée du câble et du satellite, puis de la TNT en 2005, permettent l’accroissement considérable du nombre de nouvelles chaînes et des offres de télévision (abonnements au câble, au satellite, et à Canal + en 1984). Le numérique révolutionne le secteur de la télévision, les technologies et les usages. Le nombre de chaînes continue de s’accroître de façon exponentielle. On voit se développer la production de contenus générés par les consommateurs (UGC), et l’interactivité est favorisée grâce aux réseaux sociaux. L’évolution des équipements changent les habitudes de consommation du petit écran, notamment pour les plus jeunes. L’ordinateur, la tablette, le Smartphone et la télévision connectée permettent de visionner « la télévision comme je veux, où je veux, quand je veux. ». Ainsi la télévision traditionnelle considérée comme un média de masse, tend à s’individualiser, et s’adapte aux goûts et aux envies de chacun. L’écosystème jusqu’à présent hexagonal est littéralement en train d’exploser pour faire face à l’internationalisation des contenus et à des acteurs audiovisuels majoritairement nord-américains. La réglementation devenue obsolète peine à trouver un nouveau cadre juridique à l’échelle française et européenne. Face à l’offre mondialisée, et les nouveaux usages de consommation notamment les usages délinéarisés (télévision de rattrapage, et Vidéo à la demande), la télévision continue néanmoins à fédérer le public autour de grands évènements d’actualité (évènements sportifs, politiques, journal télévisé du 20h…). Les profondes mutations et les changements rapides qui s’opèrent actuellement laissent planer une grande incertitude sur l’avenir de la télévision traditionnelle et faute de pouvoir s’adapter, celle-ci pourrait à plus ou moins long terme disparaitre… / Traditional TV, "Voice of France" is a mass medium. With a home ownership rate of over 98%, a viewing rate of l more than 3.50 hours, advertising revenue of over 4 billion euros , and “contenus Rendez-vous” bringing in record audiences, television rules over the living room, bringing the family together up into the 1980s. It is, however, controlled by the ruling political powers.Under the presidency of François Mitterrand, television was liberalized with the appearance of new private and commercial channels, financed by audiences and advertising, while the public sector continued to be funded by a license fee. In the 90s, the arrival of cable and satellite, followed by TNT in 2005, allowed the amazing increase of a number of new channels and TV services (« subscriptions to cable, satellite and finally Canal + in 1984 )But this evolution continues with the arrival of digital TV, revolutionizing the industry. It increases the number of channels exponentially, expands the production of content generated by consumers, and promotes interactivity through social networks. Technological advances are changing consumer habits with regard to the small screen, especially for young people. The computer, tablet, smartphone and the connected TV let you watch "television as I want, where I want, when I want”. Traditional TV, once considered as a mass media, is now a media that is individualized and that adapts to the tastes and desires of each viewer.The current financial system in France is literally exploding to deal with the internationalization of audiovisual content and players, with most of the content produced in North America.. Obsolete regulations can no longer keep pace with consumer demand in Europe and France. Faced with global supply and new viewing habits (delinearised viewing: replayand video on demand), television still continues to unite the public around major news events (sporting events, political events, the evening news …). The important, rapid changes now occurring in TV content and distribution lead to considerable uncertainty with regard to the future of traditional television, and unless it can adapt, it could more or less disappear in the long term.

Le faible poids de naissance et/ou une accélération de la croissance pondérale durant l’enfance sont reconnus actuellement comme facteur de risque de maladies cardiovasculaires (hypertension artérielle, en particulier). Leur rôle dans la progression des maladies rénales chroniques de l’adulte est moins évident. Cette association entre un faible poids de naissance et un risque accru d’hypertension artérielle (HTA) à l’âge adulte ferait intervenir une réduction du nombre de néphrons. Ce déficit néphronique, associé au faible poids de naissance, est responsable d’une hyperfiltration glomérulaire au sein de chaque néphron. Ce mécanisme adaptatif entraîne au fil du temps des lésions rénales, une protéinurie, une insuffisance rénale chronique et une véritable hypertension artérielle. Mais l’hypothèse pathogénique du déficit néphronique reste discutable. De plus peu l’influence de la nutrition postnatale précoce a été très peu étudiée chez l’animal. A travers 2 modèles de restriction de croissance intra-utérine (RCIU) chez le rat, nous avons montré que, plus que la RCIU elle-même, le devenir vasculaire et rénal chez le rat RCIU dépend de la sévérité du déficit néphronique. Un déficit néphronique modéré n’est pas suffisant pour affecter à long terme les fonctions/structures vasculaires et rénales chez le rat RCIU obtenu par une restriction protéique maternelle modérée (caséine 9 %)Nous avons également validé un modèle de rattrapage pondéral précoce, chez le rat. Nous avons montré qu’un rattrapage pondéral et/ou une croissance exagérée durant la période néonatale jouent un rôle primordial sur la pression artérielle, les fonctions et la structure rénale à l’âge adulte. Ces paramètres étaient d’autant plus affectés que la suralimentation néonatale était associé à une RCIU. Les maladies vasculaires et rénales résulteraient, en grande partie, d’une inadéquation entre le nombre de néphrons, réduit lors d’un faible poids de naissance, et la nutrition néonatale/postnatale, surabondante.Chez l’homme, la mise en place de nouvelles cohortes est nécessaire afin de mieux comprendre le rôle de la nutrition durant différentes phases de croissance (fœtale, néonatale, enfance et adolescence) dans le développement des maladies chroniques de l’adulte. Ces études devraient évaluer la pertinence de marqueurs précoces, et permettre la mise en œuvre de stratégies préventives précoces nutritionnelles ou médicamenteuses chez les personnes les plus à risques. / Evidence suggest that low birth weight and/or postnatal catch-up growth increase the risk for long term cardiovascular diseases (hypertension especially). Their role on the progression of chronic kidney disease is less evident. The mechanism is incompletely known. Nephron number deficit, associated with low birth weight, may play an important role. In such a condition, an adaptative single nephron glomerular hyperfiltration to meet excretory demands may lead overtime to renal damages. However this hypothesis is still questionable.In the rat, through two experimental models of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR), we have shown that adverse long term vascular and renal functions are highly dependent on the severity of nephron number deficit. Moreover, we have demonstrated that a rapid neonatal catch-up growth plays a determinant role. Neonatal overfeeding and a high protein diet following IUGR accelerate the expression of hypertension and the progression of chronic kidney disease. Long term vascular and renal diseases may thus result from a mismatch between adverse fetal environment and postnatal beneficial environment. In human prospective epidemiological studies are needed with the aim to evaluate the effect of postnatal nutrition and to determine early markers for future preventive studies.

This thesis argues that social debt profoundly transformed the environment in which literature was produced and experienced in the early modern period. In each chapter, I examine the various ways in which social debt affected Renaissance writers and the literature they produced. While considering the cultural changes regarding patronage, love, friendship, and debt, I will analyze the poetry and drama of Ben Jonson, Lady Mary Wroth, William Shakespeare, and Thomas Middleton. Each of these writers experiences social debt in a unique and revealing way. Ben Jonson's participation in networks of social debt via poetry allowed him to secure both a livelihood and a place in the Jacobean court through exchanges of poetry and patronage. The issue of social debt pervades both Wroth's life and her writing. Love and debt are intertwined in the actions of her father, the death of her husband, and the themes of her sonnets and pastoral tragicomedy. In Shakespeare’s The Merchant of Venice (c. 1596), Antonio and Bassanio’s friendship is tested by a burdensome interpersonal debt, which can only be alleviated by an outsider. This indicated the transition from honor-based credit system to an impersonal system of commercial exchange. Middleton’s A Trick to Catch the Old One (1608) examines how those heavily in debt dealt with both the social and legal consequences of defaulting on loans.

In der vorliegenden Studie wurden zwei Fragestellungen bearbeitet, die beide das Ziel verfolgen, die Stickstoff(N)-Ausnutzungseffizienz in landwirtschaftlichen Systemen zu steigern: 1) Hat die langjährige organische Düngung einen Einfluss auf den Abbau kürzlich applizierter organischer Dünger? Die Hypothese war, dass relevante Effekte nur bei schwer abbaubaren organischen Düngern auftreten während bei leicht abbaubaren organischen Düngern die Düngungshistorie keine Rolle spielt. 2) Können die hohen N-Bilanzüberschüsse im intensiven Freilandgemüsebau durch den Einsatz von Winterzwischenfrüchten (ZF) deutlich reduziert werden? Die Hypothese war, dass ZF die Bilanzüberschüsse der betrachteten zweijährigen Fruchtfolgen um mindestens 30 kg N / ha reduzieren. Die erste Hypothese wurde überprüft, indem der Abbau organischer Dünger in Böden, die sich in ihrer organischen Düngungshistorie unterschieden, gemessen wurde. Es wurden ein Topfversuch im Gewächshaus sowie ein Inkubationsversuch im Labor durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse deuteten darauf hin, dass es Effekte der Historie auf den Abbau von Stallmist und Kiefernrinde gab, während es keine Effekte bei leicht abbaubarem Kohlmaterial gab. Daher wurde die Hypothese angenommen. Allerdings ergaben die beobachteten Effekte kein konsistentes Bild in Hinblick auf die Richtung der Effekte auf die Kohlenstoff(C)- und N-Mineralisierung und Effekte auf die Netto-N-Mineralisation waren generell sehr klein. Zur Überprüfung der zweiten Hypothese wurden an drei Standorten in Deutschland Feldversuche mit Gemüsefruchtfolgen und unterschiedlichen ZF durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse ergaben, dass trotz der die mittleren Bilanzüberschüsse der Kontrollen (ohne ZF) von 217 kg N / ha die ZF die N-Bilanz im Mittel um nur 13 kg N / ha reduzierten. Daher wurde die Hypothese abgelehnt. Die Ergebnisse zeigten weiterhin, dass der verlustfreie Transfer der von der ZF aufgenommenen N-Menge an die Folgefrucht ein kritischer Schritt bei dieser Technik ist. / The current study dealt with two questions that target potential options to increase the nitrogen (N) use efficiency of agricultural systems: 1) Does long-term organic fertilization affect the decomposition of recently added organic fertilizers? The hypothesis was that effects only occur for recalcitrant organic fertilizers while for readily decomposable organic fertilizers, the fertilization history does not play a role. 2) Can the N balance surpluses in intensive field vegetable production systems be substantially reduced by cultivation of winter catch crops (CC)? The hypothesis was that the N balance surpluses of the investigated two-year crop rotations can be reduced by more than 30 kg N / ha. The first hypothesis was tested by applying organic fertilizers to soils that only differed in organic fertilization history. A greenhouse pot experiment and a laboratory incubation experiment were conducted. The results indicated that fertilization history had effects on the decomposition of farmyard manure and pine bark, not however on the decomposition of readily decomposable cabbage material. Hence, the hypothesis was accepted in that fertilization history effects depended on the type of fertilizer. However, fertilization history effects showed no consistent trend with respect to increase or decrease in carbon (C) and N mineralization and the effects on net N mineralization were minor in magnitude. The second hypothesis was tested by performing field experiments at three sites in Germany. Vegetable crop rotations were set up, testing different types of CC. The results suggested that in spite of high N surpluses in the control treatments (no CC) of 217 kg N / ha, CC reduced the N balance surplus on average by only 13 kg N / ha. Hence, the hypothesis was rejected. The findings further indicated that the transfer of N taken up by the CC to the succeeding crop is a critical step when adopting this technique.

本文嘗試在傳統的R&D模型中，引入技術引進的概念，並從技術發展型態的角度來探討其與經濟成長之關係。理論的結果告訴我們各個國家會採取何種技術發展的型態決定於其本身的技術水準。技術水準愈低的國家，基於成本的誘因，會採取較具優勢的技術引進的發展策略；相反地，技術水準較高的國家，則會利用本身較佳的技術優勢而自行研發。 採取不同技術發展型態的國家，其經濟成長的型態也跟著不同。採取技術引進策略的國家其成長的速度取決於本身和世界的技術差距，當差距愈大時，成長的速度就愈快；相反地，隨著差距的縮小，成長的速度也就會跟著緩慢下來。採取研發的國家，如同大部分R&D模型的結論，其均衡的成長路徑是維持一固定的成長率。 不同於以往內生成長模型只專注於長期的成長，我們的模型中，除了具有長期持續成長的特色外，更強調各個國家由於初始條件的差異及其成長的速度和世界成長的速度的不同，致使成長的路徑也會不同，而且每個國家收歛的恆定狀態也不相同，這也說明了為什麼世界各國之間會存在廣泛的所得差異性的現象。 另外，我們的理論也強調技術落後的國家不見得會永遠處於落後的地位，只要其成長的速度足夠支持其發生技術發展型態的結構性改變，就有可能追趕上先進國家，甚至超越。而原先處於領先地位的先進國家，也有可能因本身研發的效率退步，致使成長速度落後於世界的平均水準，結果反倒是由領先的地位退到落後國家之林。 而成長的另一個普遍獲得實證支持的現象，也就是在Solow模型中預測的條件性收歛，在我們的模型中的解釋是當一個國家的成長路徑一直高於世界的平均水準的話，換言之，該國家是一直在不斷進步的過程中，則也會發生所謂條件性收歛的現象。而我們的理論更預測了另一種現象是，當一個國家的成長路徑是處於世界平均水準之下的話，也就是說是由原本的領先退步到落後的過程中，其成長的速度反倒是開始時會較慢，而在接近收歛時開始加快速度，然後達到恆定狀態，這種現象和所謂的條件性收歛恰好反其道而行，我們稱之為逆條件性收歛現象。 除了理論之外，我們更藉由數值模擬的方式進行了政策上的分析。我們發現在成長速度上處於領先地位的國家，若要保持其領先的優勢，必定要採取研發的策略。而處於成長速度較緩慢的國家，若想要擺脫落後並追趕上領先國家的話，就得靠技術引進的方式來加快其成長的速度。 同時我們亦分析了幾種改變成長速度的政策手段，發現每一種政策的效果對不同的國家而言也不盡相同，所以各個國家所應採取的手段應視其條件而定。另外，當外生的世界成長率加快時，我們發現這個現象對成長速度落後的國家是很有幫助的，因為可以使得其速度加快趕上世界的水準。