Denna uppsats behandlar fackliga förtroendevaldas upplevelser av samarbete och medbestämmande med arbetsgivarparten. Det övergripande syftet med denna undersökning är att bidra med ökad kunskap för hur fackliga förtroendevalda idag upplever det fackliga arbetet, samt vilka faktorer som kan möjliggöra för en fungerande samverkan mellan de fackliga och arbetsgivarparten. Vi har ställt frågor kring det valda ämnesområdet i syfte att få svar på våra frågeställningar. Frågeställningarna lyder: Hur upplevs samarbetet med arbetsgivarparten? Vilka faktorer kan identifieras som framgångsfaktorer i samarbete och medbestämmande?   Undersökningen har utförts på fackliga förtroendevalda inom privat sektor. I samarbete med två fackligaorganisationer ifrån arbetar- och tjänstemannasektorn, har studien utförts på totalt tio förtroendevalda. Vi har i denna studie använt oss av en kvalitativ ansats, med djupintervjuer som metodval. Med hjälp av våra telefoner och datorer har vi spela in intervjuerna, för att sedan transkribera och sammanställa ett resultat. Vårt empiriska resultat visar att de fackliga förtroendevalda upplever ett positivt samarbetsklimat med arbetsgivarparten. Resultatet visar på att faktorerna: Öppet kommunikationsklimat, tillit, och förståelse, information och påverkan, samt kunskap, kan bidra till framgång i medbestämmande. / This essay explores the experiences with union trustees' in cooperation and co-determination with the employer. The overall purpose of this survey is to contribute with increased knowledge and understanding of how unionists today experience the union work and what factors can enable a functioning collaboration between the union and employer. Furthermore, we have asked questions about the chosen subject area in order to seek answers for our questionss. The questions are: How is cooperation with the employer experienced? What factors can be identified as success factors in cooperation and co-determination?   The survey has been performed with nominated and elected workers within unions in the private sector. Additionally, in collaboration with to unions from the worker and civil service sector a total of ten elected nominees have been surveyed. Furthermore, we used a qualitative form of approach with deep interviews as a methodological selection. Moreover, with the help of our personal phones and computers we have recorded these interviews in order to transcribe and compile a final outcome and result. Our empirical result shows that the nominated and elected workers within unions experiencing a positive cooperation environment with the employer stakeholder. Undoubtedly, an open communication environment, trust and understanding, information and knowledge can provide success in co-determination and co-participation.

Hur kan medbestämmande och inflytande i hemtjänsten komma till stånd? Syftet med denna uppsats var att ta reda på vad som upplevs ge medbestämmande och inflytande i hemtjänsten. Den övergripande frågeställningen formulerades utifrån om det finns skillnad i uppfattning hos personer som har erfarenhet och de som inte har erfarenhet av att ta emot hemtjänst? Det sociala synsättets tankar (Westlund, 2002), teorier om salutogenes (Antonowsky, 1991), (Sjöberg & Westlund, 2005) samt ett socialkonstruktivistiska synsätt om synen på äldre (Jönsson, 2001) utgör de huvudsakliga teorierna. Metoden utformades som en fallstudie och genomfördes i Alvesta kommun. Fyra grupper intervjuades med vardera tre till fem slumpmässigt utvalda respondenter. Två av intervju-grupperna bestod av personer som har personlig erfarenhet av att ta emot hemtjänst och deltagarna i de två andra intervjugrupperna saknade denna erfarenhet. Resultatet visar att de flesta av intervjugruppernas deltagare ansett oavsett tidigare erfarenhet att hemtjänstens och äldreomsorgens kvalitet? i Alvesta överlag är bra eller mycket bra. Viss skillnad i vad som de olika grupperna betecknar vara ett gott liv kommer fram. Frågor om att få byta insats, bestämma om när den ska utföras, ha möjlighet till insats utan biståndsbeslut efter viss ålder, byte till timtaxa, servicecheckar eller ej, engagerar de flesta deltagarna i intervjugrupperna med personer som inte har egen erfarenhet av hemtjänst. Dessa frågor engagerar dock inte deltagarna nämnvärt i grupperna som redan har erfarenhet av hemtjänst. Vidare pekar studien på att nästan alla gruppdeltagare, oavsett erfarenhet eller ej, anser att beslutsgången vid ansökan om insats känns oklar, en fråga som framförallt framhålls som angelägen för respondenterna. En annan betydelsefull fråga för respondenterna är frågan om personalkontinuiteten. Det uttrycks angeläget att få till stånd en kommunikation omkring frågan om ombyggnad av det gamla sjukhemmet ”Högåsen”. Avslutningsvis visar resultatet på att ett stort intresse finns från de deltagare som inte har egen erfarenhet av hemtjänst för att socialt uppsökande verksamhet erbjuds alla vid en viss ålder. / How can co-determination and influence within the home-help service sector come about? The aim of this paper is to find out what is considered to give co-determination and influence within the home-help service sector. The overall question was formulated from the The social workers have a lot of authority, I think; I should like to have some authority too. - On co-determination and influence in Alvesta´s home-help service - anticipation that there is a difference in opinion between people who have experience and those who have no experience in receiving home-help service. Det sociala synsättets tankar (Westlund 2003), Theories about Salutogenes (Atonowski 1991), Sjöberg & Westlund 2005) and Ett socilakonstruktivistiskt synsätt om synen på äldre (Jönsson, 2001) form the main theories. The method was constructed as a case study and was carried out in the town of Alvesta. Four groups were interviewed with three to five randomly chosen respondents in each group. Two of the interview groups consisted of persons who have personal experience of receiving home-help service and the participants in the two other interview groups lacked this experience. The result shows that most of the participants in the interview groups, disregarded earlier experience, are of the opinion that the quality of old age care in Alvesta overall is good or very good. A certain difference in what the different groups consider to be a good life is shown. Questions about be allowed to change service, decide when it is to be done, have possibility for services without formal authority decisions after a certain age, service cheques or not, engage most participants in the interview groups that have no personal experience of home-help service. These questions do not much engage the participants in the groups that already have experience from home-help service. Further, the study shows that nearly all group members, experience or no experience of home-help service, are of the opinion that the line of decision is unclear, a question that above all is regarded as urgent. Another important question for the respondent is the continuity in staffing. There is also a strong opinion about starting a communication regarding the reconstruction of the old nursing home “Högåsen”. Finally, the result shows that there is a great interest from the participants, who have no personal experience of home-help service, that everybody is offered an outreach programme from a certain age.

<p>Hur kan medbestämmande och inflytande i hemtjänsten komma till stånd?</p><p>Syftet med denna uppsats var att ta reda på vad som upplevs ge medbestämmande och inflytande i hemtjänsten. Den övergripande frågeställningen formulerades utifrån om det finns skillnad i uppfattning hos personer som har erfarenhet och de som inte har erfarenhet av att ta emot hemtjänst?</p><p>Det sociala synsättets tankar (Westlund, 2002), teorier om salutogenes (Antonowsky, 1991), (Sjöberg & Westlund, 2005) samt ett socialkonstruktivistiska synsätt om synen på äldre (Jönsson, 2001) utgör de huvudsakliga teorierna.</p><p>Metoden utformades som en fallstudie och genomfördes i Alvesta kommun. Fyra grupper intervjuades med vardera tre till fem slumpmässigt utvalda respondenter. Två av intervju-grupperna bestod av personer som har personlig erfarenhet av att ta emot hemtjänst och deltagarna i de två andra intervjugrupperna saknade denna erfarenhet.</p><p>Resultatet visar att de flesta av intervjugruppernas deltagare ansett oavsett tidigare erfarenhet att hemtjänstens och äldreomsorgens kvalitet? i Alvesta överlag är bra eller mycket bra. Viss skillnad i vad som de olika grupperna betecknar vara ett gott liv kommer fram. Frågor om att få byta insats, bestämma om när den ska utföras, ha möjlighet till insats utan biståndsbeslut efter viss ålder, byte till timtaxa, servicecheckar eller ej, engagerar de flesta deltagarna i intervjugrupperna med personer som inte har egen erfarenhet av hemtjänst. Dessa frågor engagerar dock inte deltagarna nämnvärt i grupperna som redan har erfarenhet av hemtjänst.</p><p>Vidare pekar studien på att nästan alla gruppdeltagare, oavsett erfarenhet eller ej, anser att beslutsgången vid ansökan om insats känns oklar, en fråga som framförallt framhålls som angelägen för respondenterna. En annan betydelsefull fråga för respondenterna är frågan om personalkontinuiteten. Det uttrycks angeläget att få till stånd en kommunikation omkring frågan om ombyggnad av det gamla sjukhemmet ”Högåsen”.</p><p>Avslutningsvis visar resultatet på att ett stort intresse finns från de deltagare som inte har egen erfarenhet av hemtjänst för att socialt uppsökande verksamhet erbjuds alla vid en viss ålder.</p> / <p>How can co-determination and influence within the home-help service sector come about?</p><p>The aim of this paper is to find out what is considered to give co-determination and influence within the home-help service sector. The overall question was formulated from the The social workers have a lot of authority, I think; I should like to have some authority too.</p><p>- On co-determination and influence in Alvesta´s home-help service -</p><p>anticipation that there is a difference in opinion between people who have experience and those who have no experience in receiving home-help service.</p><p>Det sociala synsättets tankar (Westlund 2003), Theories about Salutogenes (Atonowski 1991), Sjöberg & Westlund 2005) and Ett socilakonstruktivistiskt synsätt om synen på äldre (Jönsson, 2001) form the main theories.</p><p>The method was constructed as a case study and was carried out in the town of Alvesta. Four groups were interviewed with three to five randomly chosen respondents in each group. Two of the interview groups consisted of persons who have personal experience of receiving home-help service and the participants in the two other interview groups lacked this experience.</p><p>The result shows that most of the participants in the interview groups, disregarded earlier experience, are of the opinion that the quality of old age care in Alvesta overall is good or very good. A certain difference in what the different groups consider to be a good life is shown. Questions about be allowed to change service, decide when it is to be done, have possibility for services without formal authority decisions after a certain age, service cheques or not, engage most participants in the interview groups that have no personal experience of home-help service. These questions do not much engage the participants in the groups that already have experience from home-help service.</p><p>Further, the study shows that nearly all group members, experience or no experience of home-help service, are of the opinion that the line of decision is unclear, a question that above all is regarded as urgent. Another important question for the respondent is the continuity in staffing. There is also a strong opinion about starting a communication regarding the reconstruction of the old nursing home “Högåsen”.</p><p>Finally, the result shows that there is a great interest from the participants, who have no personal experience of home-help service, that everybody is offered an outreach programme from a certain age.</p>

Die Forderung nach Wirtschaftsdemokratie ist eng verknüpft mit der Entwicklung der Industrialisierung Wie Demokratie in Unternehmen auszugestalten sei, darüber divergieren die Positionen der verantwortlichen Akteur*innen, abhängig von den Wertevorstellungen, der sozialen Position, den Vorprägungen, den Interessen usw. Die gegenwärtigen ‚Standards von Demokratie in Unternehmen‘ haben sich unter dem Begriff der „Mitbestimmung' manifestiert und sind seit der Frühphase der Bundesrepublik nicht nennenswert gesetzlich weiterentwickelt worden. Demokratie bedeutet jedoch keinen vollendeten statischen Zustand, sondern einen dialogorientierten Prozess, mit dem Ziel, die Herrschaft des Menschen übereinander einzuschränken. Für Verantwortliche in Unternehmen ist deshalb Eigeninitiative gefragt, wenn sie Demokratie in Unternehmen i. d. S. beleben wollen Die Erkenntnisse aus der Literaturrecherche wurden in Form eines Leitfadens zusammengefasst um den Akteur*innen ein Verständnis für die Umsetzung von Demokratie in Unternehmen zu vermitteln Die Ausweitung der Demokratie auf den Lebensbereich der Wirtschaft ist ein Ausgangspunkt, um den gesellschaftlichen Dialog über eine nachhaltige Lebensweise zu fördern und die Umsetzung zu legitimieren. / The demand for economic democracy is closely linked to the historical process of industrialization. How democracy should be designed in companies, the positions of the responsible actors diverge, depending on the values, the social position, the preconceptions, the interests, etc. The current 'standards of democracy in companies' have come under the term of 'And have not been further developed legally since the early phase of the Federal Republic of Germany. However, democracy does not mean a perfect static state, but a dialogue-oriented process with the aim of restricting the rule of people over one another. For those responsible in companies, initiative is therefore required if they want to stimulate democracy in companies in the sense of the word. The findings from the literature research were summarized in the form of a guide in order to give the actors an understanding of the implementation of democracy in companies. The expansion of democracy to include the economy is a starting point for promoting social dialogue about a sustainable way of life and legitimizing its implementation.

Tidigare forskning har visat att arbetet i olika aspekter har stor betydelse för människans psykiska välmående. Vi valde att undersöka hur det är att ha varit utanför arbetsmarknaden och att sedan arbeta i ett socialt företag. Syftet med studien var att skapa en förståelse kring vilka behov arbetet uppfyller samt vilken betydelse ett socialt företag har för en individ. Hur upplever individer den period de var arbetslösa? Uppfyller det sociala företaget något särskilt behov för individen? Det teoretiska ramverk vi använde oss av i studien var; den latenta deprivationsmodellen, humanitärt arbete samt inklusion/exklusion. Vårt empiriska material samlades in genom sju semistrukturerade intervjuer med individer som varit utan arbete men som idag arbetar i ett socialt företag. Här har informanternas upplevelser varit i fokus för att fånga deras unika berättelser. Resultatet visar att informanterna mådde psykiskt dåligt tiden de var utan arbete men att de idag mår bättre som en effekt av att arbetet uppfyller flera väsentliga behov för att en individ ska känna ett psykiskt välmående. Det framgick även att medbestämmande och delaktighet, som är ledord för arbetsförhållandena på det sociala företaget, spelar en stor roll för individens mående i positiv bemärkelse. / Previous research has shown that the work in various aspects is of great importance for human mental well-being. We have chosen to examine how it is to have been unemployed and then to get a job in a social enterprise. The purpose of the study was to create an understanding of the needs that work contributes to and what the importance of social enterprise is for an individual. How have individuals experienced their unemployment? Do social enterprises fulfill any particular needs for the individual? The theoretical framework we use in the study is; the latent deprivation model, humanitarian work and inclusion/exclusion. Our empirical material was gathered through seven semi-structured interviews with individuals who have been unemployed but are currently working in a social enterprise. Through these interviews, we have been able to capture the experiences of the seven individuals and focused on their unique stories. The result have shown that the informants felt mentally ill at the time they were without work, but because work satisfies several essential needs they feel much better today. Co-determination and involvement are key words for the working conditions in social enterprises, which played a major role for the individuals’ positive well-being.

Begreppen delaktighet och inflytande används flitigt i skolans verksamhet, men hur görs barn och elever delaktiga i undervisningen och när tillåts de egentligen ha inflytande? Studiens syfte är att belysa elevernas delaktighet och inflytande utifrån deras perspektiv. Den teori som används är Shiers delaktighetsmodell och som metod har intervjuer använts i form av barnsamtal. I en kvalitativ studie med öppna intervjufrågor har samtal genomförts med elever på två olika skolor. Resultatet visar att det finns begränsningar när det gäller elevernas medbestämmande och möjligheten till att påverka sin undervisning. Majoriteten av eleverna upplever att lärarna endast lyssnar ibland, men att de inte tar hänsyn till det som eleverna säger. En minioritet av eleverna upplever att de blir lyssnade till när de kommer med tankar och idéer. Elevernas möjlighet till delaktighet och medbestämmande blir större när de går in i en roll som till exempel vid morgonsamlingen då eleverna får möjlighet att vara dagens värd. I de olika ämnen som är i förskoleklass är det i den fria leken som eleverna känner att de har störst inflytande medan i matematik och svenska har eleverna inget att bestämma om. Studien visar utifrån elevers upplevelser hur en begränsning av delaktighet och inflytande är för eleverna. Studien kan inspirera lärare i förskoleklass till att våga tänka utanför ramarna och utifrån ett elevperspektiv. Det kan bidra till att låta eleverna få mer delaktighet och inflytande i sin undervisning. / The concepts of participation and influence are widely used in school activities, but how are children and students involved in teaching and when are they actually allowed to have influence? The purpose of the study is to shed light on students' participation and influence from their perspective. The theory used is Shier's participation model and as a method interviews have been used in the form of child interviews. In a qualitative study with open interview questions, interviews were conducted with students at two different schools. The results show that there are limitations when it comes to students' participation and the opportunity to influence their teaching. The majority of students experience that the teachers only listen occasionally, but that they do not take into account what the students say. A minority of students experience that they are listened to when they come up with thoughts and ideas. The students' opportunity for participation and co-determination becomes greater when they enter a role such as at the morning assembly when the students are given the opportunity to be the host of the day. In the various subjects that are in the preschool class, it is in the free play that the students feel that they have the greatest influence, while in mathematics and Swedish the students have nothing to decide on. The study shows, based on students' experiences, how a limitation of participation and influence is for the students. The study can inspire preschool teachers to dare to think outside the box and from a student perspective. It can help to give students more participation and influence in their teaching.

Thèse de doctorat réalisée en cotutelle avec la Faculté de droit de l'Université Aix-Marseille 3. / La présente recherche a pour objectif d’expliquer et d’évaluer le processus d’émergence du droit au respect des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones, qui se manifeste devant deux juridictions et une quasi-juridiction : les cours européenne et interaméricaine des droits de l’homme et le Comité des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, dont les jurisprudences feront l’objet d’une comparaison. Un tel sujet soulève plusieurs questions, dont celles de savoir à quel stade de ce processus nous en sommes, quel est le niveau de juridicité de la norme, mais aussi, quelle est la signification de ce droit, quels en sont les apports et comment se produit sa mise en œuvre. En proposer une interprétation éclairée suppose d’évaluer la référence au concept de mode de vie faite par les requérants, les juges et les experts. Cette démarche implique d’avoir recours à l’interdisciplinarité, plus précisément à certaines études anthropologiques. Cela requiert également un examen du discours des juges, des experts et des requérants pour en observer les convergences et les décalages. Quant aux résultats de recherche, le rôle de plusieurs acteurs au processus d’émergence de la norme nouvelle – les requérants, les juges ou les experts et les États – est souligné. Cela confirme la théorie de la polycentricité en matière de construction de certaines règles de droit international. La juridicité du droit au respect des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones et sa force varient en fonction des systèmes, mais il possède toujours les caractéristiques propres à la norme juridique internationale. Cette dernière consacre un droit spécifique appartenant aux peuples autochtones et tribaux ou aux membres de peuples autochtones et minoritaires. Elle protège un rapport au territoire, soit un mode d’appréhension et d’exploitation, mais aussi de circulation et d’établissement sur celui-ci, ainsi que des activités. Les requérants roms, tribaux ou autochtones participent, bien qu’officieusement, à la définition juridique de leurs modes de vie, puisque les requêtes qu’ils déposent devant les juridictions supranationales constituent le fondement des interprétations judiciaires. Malgré ce processus de codétermination, certains décalages persistent entre les positions des divers acteurs impliqués dans la détermination du sens de la norme. Ils sont liés à l’impossibilité pour les juges d’appliquer au cas d’espèce une protection de leurs modes de vie, à l’éloignement entre la position des requérants et celle de l’État défendeur ou encore à la protection des droits des tiers. Une double surdétermination de la norme est donc constatée, par les conceptions des juges ou des experts, mais aussi par celles des requérants. Elle comporte certains risques d’essentialisation et d’idéalisation des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones, de paternalisme, de victimisation ou de discrimination vis-à-vis des requérants ou de leurs communautés, sachant que ces risques sont tous à même de dénaturer le sens et la portée de la norme. Pour autant, cette dernière est porteuse d’avancées théoriques. Celles-ci ont trait à la coexistence, au sein de territoires identiques, entre groupes aux identités différentes, à l’amélioration de la qualité de vie des requérants et au processus de reconnaissance. La place occupée par la volonté des États, l’importance pour les juges de préserver leur légitimité, de même que le caractère idéaliste ou dogmatique de l’interprétation proposée, en limitent les apports théoriques. Il ressort de cette réflexion que la bonne articulation des divers discours en présence et l’émergence d’une norme efficace tiennent d’abord à l’énonciation et à la clarté des revendications des requérants minoritaires et autochtones. Elles tiennent ensuite à la réceptivité des agents qui les reçoivent – juges et experts – ainsi qu’au contexte politique, social et culturel qui les entourent. Cette analyse met ainsi en évidence l’importance d’exploiter la marge de manœuvre dont dispose chaque acteur du processus d’émergence dans la détermination du sens et de la portée des normes. / This research aims to explain and evaluate the emergence of a right of minorities and indigenous peoples to the respect of their ways of life, appearing before the European court of human rights, the Inter-American court of human rights and the United Nations Human rights Committee. The decisions and communications stemming from these tribunals will be analyzed and compared. This topic raises several questions regarding the legality of this norm, its meaning, effectiveness and limits, but also its implementation. In order to offer an interpretation of the content of that right, we need to evaluate the references made to it by the claimants, the judges and experts, which implicates an interdisciplinary approach focused on anthropological studies of law. This leads us to examine the discourses of judges, experts and claimants, to compare them and to observe their confluences and discrepancies. The results of this study show us that the emergence of this new norm is dependent upon the intervention of several agents – the claimants, the judges, the experts of the Committee and the States. This observation therefore confirms the polycentric process of construction of international legal rules. As to the legality and the effectiveness of the right of minorities and indigenous peoples to their ways of life, they vary according to the legal system, even if this right always corresponds to a legal rule. This rule consecrates a specific right belonging to indigenous and tribal people or to the members of indigenous people and minorities. It protects a relationship to the territory, i.e. a way to comprehend and to exploit it, to circulate on it and to inhabitate it. It also protects some activities. The indigenous, tribal and romas applicants unofficially take part in the legal definition of their ways of life, as the requests they submit to the international tribunals are cornerstones of judicial interpretations. In spite of a process of co-determination of the norm, gaps are observed between the positions of the different actors participating to the determination of the norm. They are either related to the impossibility for some judges to apply the right to a way of life to the case, to the distance between the positions of the claimants and the states, or to the protection of third parties. Consequently, a process of double distortion of the content of the norm appears, due to the judges’ or experts’ conceptions, but also to those of the claimants. It leads to the emergence of several problems, such as essentialism and the idealization of minorities and indigenous ways of life, paternalism, victimization or discrimination towards the claimants or their communities. These problems can alter the meaning and the impact of the norm. Nonetheless, the right to the respect of those ways of life has some theoretical effects related first to the coexistence, on a same piece of land, of different groups possessing diverse identities. They are also related to the improvement of the applicants’ quality of life and to the recognition process. However, the State’s willingness still occupies a large space in international law, as does the importance, for judges, to protect their own legitimacy. Moreover, some decisions seem too ideal or dogmatic. Those factors limit the effect of the norm. Thus, the articulation of judicial discourses and the efficiency of the norm are first contingent to the enunciation and to the clarity of the claimants’ requests. They are dependant of the receptivity of the agents whose role it is to receive them (judges and experts) and to the political, social and cultural context within which they take place. This last factor brings to light the importance for each agent participating to the elaboration of the norm to use, as much as he can, the margins he possesses.

La présente recherche a pour objectif d’expliquer et d’évaluer le processus d’émergence du droit au respect des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones, qui se manifeste devant deux juridictions et une quasi-juridiction : les cours européenne et interaméricaine des droits de l’homme et le Comité des droits de l’homme des Nations Unies, dont les jurisprudences feront l’objet d’une comparaison. Un tel sujet soulève plusieurs questions, dont celles de savoir à quel stade de ce processus nous en sommes, quel est le niveau de juridicité de la norme, mais aussi, quelle est la signification de ce droit, quels en sont les apports et comment se produit sa mise en œuvre. En proposer une interprétation éclairée suppose d’évaluer la référence au concept de mode de vie faite par les requérants, les juges et les experts. Cette démarche implique d’avoir recours à l’interdisciplinarité, plus précisément à certaines études anthropologiques. Cela requiert également un examen du discours des juges, des experts et des requérants pour en observer les convergences et les décalages. Quant aux résultats de recherche, le rôle de plusieurs acteurs au processus d’émergence de la norme nouvelle – les requérants, les juges ou les experts et les États – est souligné. Cela confirme la théorie de la polycentricité en matière de construction de certaines règles de droit international. La juridicité du droit au respect des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones et sa force varient en fonction des systèmes, mais il possède toujours les caractéristiques propres à la norme juridique internationale. Cette dernière consacre un droit spécifique appartenant aux peuples autochtones et tribaux ou aux membres de peuples autochtones et minoritaires. Elle protège un rapport au territoire, soit un mode d’appréhension et d’exploitation, mais aussi de circulation et d’établissement sur celui-ci, ainsi que des activités. Les requérants roms, tribaux ou autochtones participent, bien qu’officieusement, à la définition juridique de leurs modes de vie, puisque les requêtes qu’ils déposent devant les juridictions supranationales constituent le fondement des interprétations judiciaires. Malgré ce processus de codétermination, certains décalages persistent entre les positions des divers acteurs impliqués dans la détermination du sens de la norme. Ils sont liés à l’impossibilité pour les juges d’appliquer au cas d’espèce une protection de leurs modes de vie, à l’éloignement entre la position des requérants et celle de l’État défendeur ou encore à la protection des droits des tiers. Une double surdétermination de la norme est donc constatée, par les conceptions des juges ou des experts, mais aussi par celles des requérants. Elle comporte certains risques d’essentialisation et d’idéalisation des modes de vie minoritaires et autochtones, de paternalisme, de victimisation ou de discrimination vis-à-vis des requérants ou de leurs communautés, sachant que ces risques sont tous à même de dénaturer le sens et la portée de la norme. Pour autant, cette dernière est porteuse d’avancées théoriques. Celles-ci ont trait à la coexistence, au sein de territoires identiques, entre groupes aux identités différentes, à l’amélioration de la qualité de vie des requérants et au processus de reconnaissance. La place occupée par la volonté des États, l’importance pour les juges de préserver leur légitimité, de même que le caractère idéaliste ou dogmatique de l’interprétation proposée, en limitent les apports théoriques. Il ressort de cette réflexion que la bonne articulation des divers discours en présence et l’émergence d’une norme efficace tiennent d’abord à l’énonciation et à la clarté des revendications des requérants minoritaires et autochtones. Elles tiennent ensuite à la réceptivité des agents qui les reçoivent – juges et experts – ainsi qu’au contexte politique, social et culturel qui les entourent. Cette analyse met ainsi en évidence l’importance d’exploiter la marge de manœuvre dont dispose chaque acteur du processus d’émergence dans la détermination du sens et de la portée des normes. / This research aims to explain and evaluate the emergence of a right of minorities and indigenous peoples to the respect of their ways of life, appearing before the European court of human rights, the Inter-American court of human rights and the United Nations Human rights Committee. The decisions and communications stemming from these tribunals will be analyzed and compared. This topic raises several questions regarding the legality of this norm, its meaning, effectiveness and limits, but also its implementation. In order to offer an interpretation of the content of that right, we need to evaluate the references made to it by the claimants, the judges and experts, which implicates an interdisciplinary approach focused on anthropological studies of law. This leads us to examine the discourses of judges, experts and claimants, to compare them and to observe their confluences and discrepancies. The results of this study show us that the emergence of this new norm is dependent upon the intervention of several agents – the claimants, the judges, the experts of the Committee and the States. This observation therefore confirms the polycentric process of construction of international legal rules. As to the legality and the effectiveness of the right of minorities and indigenous peoples to their ways of life, they vary according to the legal system, even if this right always corresponds to a legal rule. This rule consecrates a specific right belonging to indigenous and tribal people or to the members of indigenous people and minorities. It protects a relationship to the territory, i.e. a way to comprehend and to exploit it, to circulate on it and to inhabitate it. It also protects some activities. The indigenous, tribal and romas applicants unofficially take part in the legal definition of their ways of life, as the requests they submit to the international tribunals are cornerstones of judicial interpretations. In spite of a process of co-determination of the norm, gaps are observed between the positions of the different actors participating to the determination of the norm. They are either related to the impossibility for some judges to apply the right to a way of life to the case, to the distance between the positions of the claimants and the states, or to the protection of third parties. Consequently, a process of double distortion of the content of the norm appears, due to the judges’ or experts’ conceptions, but also to those of the claimants. It leads to the emergence of several problems, such as essentialism and the idealization of minorities and indigenous ways of life, paternalism, victimization or discrimination towards the claimants or their communities. These problems can alter the meaning and the impact of the norm. Nonetheless, the right to the respect of those ways of life has some theoretical effects related first to the coexistence, on a same piece of land, of different groups possessing diverse identities. They are also related to the improvement of the applicants’ quality of life and to the recognition process. However, the State’s willingness still occupies a large space in international law, as does the importance, for judges, to protect their own legitimacy. Moreover, some decisions seem too ideal or dogmatic. Those factors limit the effect of the norm. Thus, the articulation of judicial discourses and the efficiency of the norm are first contingent to the enunciation and to the clarity of the claimants’ requests. They are dependant of the receptivity of the agents whose role it is to receive them (judges and experts) and to the political, social and cultural context within which they take place. This last factor brings to light the importance for each agent participating to the elaboration of the norm to use, as much as he can, the margins he possesses. / Thèse de doctorat réalisée en cotutelle avec la Faculté de droit de l'Université Aix-Marseille 3.

勞工參與制度之實踐，有助於達成勞資平等及保障勞工權益。然因勞工參與制度之推動涉及公司治理法制及公司經營上之廣大利益，須在社會各方成員達成共識之後，才有透過立法推動之可能，亦即釐清社會各界疑慮及提供資方足夠誘因，為勞工參與企業經營制度於我國擴大實施之關鍵。 我國公司治理法制及公司法領域之專業意見，皆對勞工參與企業經營制度作為公司治理模式抱持懷疑的態度，主因在於我國公司治理主流之美國法思維。但事實上反對觀點所呈現者，並非勞工參與企業經營制度本質上之瑕疵，僅是身為法律繼受者在思考上之侷限。 觀諸德國勞工參與制度之經驗，在共同決定制度逾50年之發展中，雖面臨諸多質疑，近年亦因歐洲公司成立亦引起勞工參與制度彈性化之論爭。但在歷經金融風暴等全球性經濟危機後，德國企業之快速重建卻證明共同決定制度塑造之和諧勞資關係確實有助於公司永續發展；而德國勞工代表長期參與公司監事會之運作亦提供勞工參與作為公司治理模式之正當性。 雖然我國勞工董事制度實施至今，適用主體仍限於國營及公營轉民營企業，但在這些少數企業中，仍有勞工董事制度實踐之成功案例。本文即藉由中鋼勞工董事實踐之經驗，說明中鋼勞工董事參與公司經營後帶來之效益，破除國內反對見解之疑慮並提供資方實施之誘因。希望在德國與我國經驗之背書下，能夠促進社會共識之凝聚，以利勞工參與企業經營制度之推動，改善勞資關係，達成公司治理促進公司永續經營之目標。 / The practice of the labor participation system helps to achieve equality of labor and capital and safeguard labor rights. However, the promotion of the labor participation system involves the change of Corporate Governance System and the interests of the company, it is only after the consensus reached among the community, there is a possibility to promote it through legislation, that is, clarifying the concerns of the community and providing sufficient incentives for the emlpoyers turn into of the key to the promote Company Level Labor Participation System . Based on the viewpoint above, this study uses the experience in implementing the labor participation system of Germany and China Steel Corporation to verify that the labor participation system can and should be the model of corporate governance to break the doubts of the opponents and provide sufficient incentives for the emlpoyers. It is hoped that under the endorsement of Germany and China Steel Corporation's experience, can help the community reach the consensus, accelerate the promotion of Company Level Labor Participation System, improve the labor-management relations, and achieve the goal of Sustainable Operation.

Recently, South African company law underwent a dramatic overhaul through the introduction of the Companies Act 71 of 2008. Central to company law is the promotion of corporate governance: companies no longer are accountable to their shareholders only but to society at large. Leaders should direct company strategy and operations with a view to achieving the triple bottom-line (economic, social and environmental performance) and, thus, should manage the business in a sustainable manner. An important question in company law today: In whose interest should the company be managed? Corporate governance needs to address the entire span of responsibilities to all stakeholders of the company, such as customers, employees, shareholders, suppliers and the community at large. The Companies Act aims to balance the rights and obligations of shareholders and directors within companies and encourages the efficient and responsible management of companies. The promotion of human rights is central in the application of company law: it is extremely important given the significant role of enterprises within the social and economic life of the nation. The interests of various stakeholder groups in the context of the corporation as a “social institution” should be enhanced and protected. Because corporations are a part of society and the community they are required to be socially responsible and to be more accountable to all stakeholders in the company. Although directors act in the best interests of shareholders, collectively, they must also consider the interests of other stakeholders. Sustainable relationships with all the relevant stakeholders are important. The advancement of social justice is important to corporations in that they should take into account the Constitution, labour and company law legislation in dealing with social justice issues. Employees have become important stakeholders in companies and their needs should be taken into account in a bigger corporate governance and social responsibility framework. Consideration of the role of employees in corporations entails notice that the Constitution grants every person a fundamental right to fair labour practices. Social as well as political change became evident after South Africa's re-entry into the world in the 1990s. Change to socio-economic conditions in a developing country is also evident. These changes have a major influence on South African labour law. Like company law, labour law, to a large extent, is codified. Like company law, no precise definition of labour law exists. From the various definitions, labour law covers both the individual and collective labour law and various role-players are involved. These role-players include trade unions, employers/companies, employees, and the state. The various relationships between these parties, ultimately, are what guides a certain outcome if there is a power play between them. In 1995 the South African labour market was transformed by the introduction of the Labour Relations Act 66 of 1995. The LRA remains the primary piece of labour legislation that governs labour law in South Africa. The notion of industrial democracy and the transformation of the workplace are central issues in South African labour law. The constitutional change that have taken place in South Africa, by which the protection of human rights and the democratisation of the workplace are advanced contributed to these developments. Before the enactment of the LRA, employee participation and voice were much-debated topics, locally and internationally. In considering employee participation, it is essential to take due cognisance of both the labour and company law principles that are pertinent: the need for workers to have a voice in the workplace and for employers to manage their corporations. Employee participation and voice should be evident at different levels: from informationsharing to consultation to joint decision-making. Corporations should enhance systems and processes that facilitate employee participation and voice in decisions that affect employees. The primary research question under investigation is: What role should (and could) employees play in corporate decision-making in South Africa? The main inquiry of the thesis, therefore, is to explore the issue of granting a voice to employees in companies, in particular, the role of employees in the decision-making processes of companies. The thesis explores various options, including supervisory co-determination as well as social co-determination, in order to find solutions that will facilitate the achievement of employee participation and voice in companies in South Africa. / LLD, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015