A presente pesquisa investiga os impactos da regulação econômica nas escolhas de práticas contábeis. Buscando identificar a relação existente, são apresentadas pesquisas em gerenciamento da informação contábil (de resultado e do balanço patrimonial) e as teorias econômicas da regulação. Em seguida, são apresentadas as evidências empíricas de como a regulação econômica incentiva a adoção de determinadas práticas contábeis. Nesse mister, é apresentada a regulação financeira exercida pela Agência Nacional de Saúde Suplementar (ANS) sobre as entidades operadoras de planos de assistência à saúde (OPS), também chamadas de planos de saúde. Essa regulação financeira consiste no acompanhamento, pela ANS, da situação econômico-financeira das OPS. A ANS compara os índices calculados a partir das informações contábeis recebidas, eletronicamente, das OPS, com parâmetros estabelecidos a priori. Se determinada OPS não atender, satisfatoriamente, os parâmetros, fica sujeita ao afastamento de seus administradores de suas funções e até à liquidação de seus ativos. Por fim, as teorias da regulação e do gerenciamento da informação contábil são revisitadas à luz da Nova Economia Institucional, identificando-se, portanto, a Contabilidade como parte integrante de um contrato (regulação) cujos custos são diferentes de zero (custos de transação), de forma que a informação contábil é a cola que mantém a firma unida e a regulação financeira em atividade. / This study analyzes how the economic regulation impacts on accounting policy choices. With a view to identifying the existing relationship between both, the economic theories of regulation and research on earnings and balance sheet management are discussed. Then, empirical evidence is presented of how economic regulation stimulates the choice of certain accounting policies, related to the Brazilian Health Care Agencys (ANS) equivalent to the US Federal governments Office of Health Maintenance Organizations financial regulation of health maintenance organizations (HMO), called OPS in Brazil. OPS have their economic-financial situation monitored by the ANS, which compares the indices calculated on the basis of electronically received financial information with some previously established financial thresholds. If these are not complied with to a reasonable extent, this may lead to the HMOs liquidation. Finally, the regulation and earnings and balance sheet management theories are discussed under the lens of New Institutional Economics, which sees Accounting as part of a contract (regulation), whose costs are positive (transaction costs), and accounting information as the glue that keeps the firm together and keeps the financial regulation working.

Diskontering och nuvärdesberäkning som värderingsmetod har ökat i användning. Acceptansen för värdering till verkliga värden har också ökat och IFRS tillåter i flertalet standarder användning av denna värderingsmetod som, beroende på användning är förknippad med subjektiva inslag. Tidigare forskning uppmärksammar problematiken med diskontering i de avseende att det öppnar upp för subjektivitet och möjligheter för företagsledningen att manipulera resultat och balansräkning. Även om det råder konsensus kring risker med värderingstekniker som innefattar nuvärdesberäkning saknas det, oss veterligen, studier som kartlägger omfattningen av denna värderingsteknik.Mot bakgrund av teorin om informationsasymmetri, earnings management, agentteorin samt de kvalitativa egenskaperna jämförbarhet och tillförlitlighet är studiens syfte att kartlägga användningen av diskontering hos bolag registrerade på NASDAQ Stockholm. Genom att undersöka 268 av 299 företag upptagna på börsen kan vi visa på användningen och utmärkande skillnader mellan företag tillhörande olika storlek och sektorer. Resultatet är att betraktas som vägledande för framtida studier.Slutsatsen är att diskontering förekommer hos merparten av bolagen på NASDAQ Stockholm. Ytterligare slutsats utifrån studien är att företagen avsätter olika stor yta till information om diskontering och nuvärdesberäkning. Konsekvent genom analysen förs resonemanget att om företagen avsätter en liten yta i relation till andra företag kan detta ha en negativ inverkan på den finansiella rapportens kvalité utifrån resonemang om agentteorin, informationsasymmetrin och earnings management, samt den kvalitativa egenskapen tillförlitlighet. I resonemanget kring den kvalitativa egenskapen, jämförbarhet, är det istället en nackdel att företagen avsätter olika stor yta. / Discounting and present value calculation as a valuation method has increased in use. Acceptance for fair value valuation has also increased and IFRS allows in most standards the use of this valuation method which, depending on use, is associated with subjective elements. Previous researches draws attention to the problem of discounting and present value calculations in terms of opening up for subjectivity and opportunities for management to manipulate earnings and balance sheets. Although there is a consensus about risks with valuation techniques that include discounting and present value calculations, we find that there is lacking studies that map the scope of this valuation technique.In view of Information Asymmetry, Earnings management, Agent Theory and the qualitative characteristics of comparability and reliability the purpose of the study is to map the use of discounting and present value calculation by companies listed on NASDAQ Stockholm. By examining 268 of 299 companies listed on the Stockholm stock exchange, we can demonstrate the use and distinctive differences between companies of different sizes and sectors. The result is to be considered as guidance for future studies.The conclusion is that discounting occurs at most of the companies on NASDAQ Stockholm. A further conclusion from the study is that companies allocate different amount of areas to information about discounting and present value calculation. Consistently through the analysis, the reasoning is that, if the companies allocate a small area of information in relation to other companies, this may have a negative impact on the quality of the financial report. This is based on the reasoning of the agency theory, information asymmetry and earnings management, as well as the qualitative characteristics faithful representation. In the reasoning about the qualitative characteristics, comparability, it is rather a disadvantage that companies allocate different large areas.(This thesis is written in Swedish)

Unterlassen die Vorstände deutscher Unternehmen wirtschaftlich sinnvolle Investitionen, um einer auf Quartalszahlen fokussierten Financial Community befriedigende Ergebnisse präsentieren zu können? In der vorliegenden Arbeit wird die Frage nach der Existenz von solch kurzfristigem Verhalten, bezeichnet als Managermyopie bzw. Managerial Myopia, sowie den Einflussfaktoren auf dieses Verhalten gestellt. Zur Beantwortung wurden eine postalische, anonymisierte Fragebogenumfrage unter den Finanzvorständen der CDAX-Unternehmen mit einer Rücklaufquote von 21% sowie teilstrukturierte Interviews durchgeführt. Die Ergebnisse liefern deutliche Hinweise auf die Existenz von kurzfristigem Verhalten. Die Faktoren Kapitalmarktdruck, Unternehmensgröße und Fremdkapitalquote besitzen einen statistisch messbaren Einfluss auf kurzfristiges Verhalten. Die Untersuchung liefert direkte Erkenntnisse über Kapitalmarktdruck, das tatsächlich ausgeübte Maß von kurzfristigem Verhalten und die aktuelle Debatte über die verpflichtende Einführung von Quartalsberichterstattung.:INHALTSVERZEICHNIS I ABKÜRZUNGSVERZEICHNIS IV ABBILDUNGSVERZEICHNIS VI TABELLENVERZEICHNIS VII I. EINLEITUNG 1 1. HINTERGRUND 1 2. PROBLEMSTELLUNG, RELEVANZ UND NEUIGKEITSGRAD DER ARBEIT 3 3. AUFBAU DER ARBEIT 5 II. GRUNDLAGEN 7 1. MANAGERMYOPIE: BEGRIFFSBESTIMMUNG 7 2. AUSPRÄGUNGSFORMEN VON MANAGERMYOPIE 11 2.1. Aufwendungsmyopie 12 2.1.1. Forschung und Entwicklung 13 2.1.2. Werbung 14 2.1.3. Personalentwicklung 16 2.1.4. Sonstige Ausprägungsformen von Aufwendungsmyopie 17 2.2. Ertragsmyopie 17 2.2.1. Preiserhöhungen 18 2.2.2. Preissenkungen 19 2.2.3. Markenerweiterungen 22 2.2.4. Nutzung neuer Distributionskanäle 23 III. LITERATURÜBERBLICK 26 1. EINORDNUNG DER MANAGERMYOPIE-LITERATUR INNERHALB DER CORPORATE-FINANCE-LITERATUR 26 2. EINORDNUNG DER MANAGERMYOPIE-LITERATUR INNERHALB DER ACCOUNTING-LITERATUR 33 2.1. Einordnung der Managermyopie-Literatur innerhalb der angloamerikanischen Accounting-Literatur 33 2.2. Einordnung der Managermyopie-Literatur innerhalb der deutschen Accounting-Literatur 35 3. „ANECDOTAL EVIDENCE“ 37 4. THEORETISCHE ARBEITEN 42 5. EMPIRISCHE ARBEITEN 53 5.1. Analysen von Aufwendungen 53 5.2. Analysen von Kapitalaufnahmen 58 5.3. Umfragen und Experimente 62 5.4. Sonstige 64 6. ZUSAMMENFASSENDE WÜRDIGUNG DES VORHANDENEN MATERIALS 69 6.1. Würdigung des vorhandenen theoretischen Materials 69 6.2. Würdigung des vorhandenen empirischen Materials 71 IV. METHODIK 74 1. FRAGESTELLUNGEN UND HYPOTHESEN 74 1.1. Fragestellungen 75 1.1.1. Existenz von Managermyopie in deutschen Unternehmen 76 1.1.2. Existenz von Kapitalmarktdruck auf deutsche Unternehmen 79 1.2. Hypothesen 80 1.2.1. Kapitalmarktdruck 81 1.2.2. Berichtsfrequenz 82 1.2.3. Strategische Langfristinvestoren 84 1.2.4. Fremdfinanzierung 85 1.2.5. Unternehmensgröße 86 1.2.6. Industriezugehörigkeit 87 2. DURCHFÜHRUNG DER UNTERSUCHUNG 88 2.1. Methode der Datenerhebung 88 2.1.1. Begründung der Methode der Datenerhebung 88 2.1.2. Einordnung des gewählten Untersuchungsdesigns 91 2.2. Durchführung der Fragebogenumfrage 93 2.2.1. Untersuchungsobjekte, angestrebte Grundgesamtheit und Beobachtungsobjekte 93 2.2.2. Auswahlgesamtheit 94 2.2.3. Fragebogenentwicklung 95 2.2.4. Versendung und Rücklauf der Fragebögen, Inferenzpopulation 96 2.3. Durchführung der Interviewserie 98 2.4. Operationalisierung der verwendeten Variablen 99 2.4.1. Operationalisierung von Managermyopie 99 2.4.2. Operationalisierung von Kapitalmarktdruck 103 2.4.3. Operationalisierung der demographischen Variablen 104 3. BESCHREIBUNG DER INFERENZPOPULATION DER FRAGEBOGENUMFRAGE 107 3.1. Eigenschaften der an der Fragebogenumfrage teilnehmenden Unternehmen 107 3.2. Verzerrungen der Inferenzpopulation 109 3.2.1. Analyse des Coverage-Bias 109 3.2.2. Analyse des Non-Response-Bias 110 3.2.3. Analyse des Social-Desirability-Bias 114 3.2.4. Analyse des Informant-Bias 117 3.2.5. Analyse der Verzerrung durch Mißverständnis 118 4. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG DER METHODIK 119 V. ERGEBNISSE 122 1. DESKRIPTIVE ANALYSE 122 1.1. Existenz von Managermyopie in deutschen Unternehmen 122 1.2. Existenz von Aufwendungsmyopie in deutschen Unternehmen 124 1.3. Existenz verschiedener Ausprägungen von Aufwendungsmyopie in deutschen Unternehmen 126 1.4. Existenz von Ertragsmyopie in deutschen Unternehmen 128 1.5. Existenz verschiedener Ausprägungen von Ertragsmyopie in deutschen Unternehmen 129 1.6. Existenz von Kapitalmarktdruck in deutschen Unternehmen 131 2. INFERENZSTATISTISCHE ANALYSE 133 2.1. Kapitalmarktdruck und Managermyopie 133 2.2. Berichtsfrequenz und Kapitalmarktdruck 137 2.3. Berichtsfrequenz und Managermyopie 139 2.4. Strategische Langfristinvestoren und Kapitalmarktdruck 140 2.5. Strategische Langfristinvestoren und Managermyopie 141 2.6. Fremdkapitalquote und Kapitalmarktdruck 142 2.7. Fremdkapitalquote und Managermyopie 144 2.8. Unternehmensgröße und Kapitalmarktdruck 145 2.9. Unternehmensgröße und Managermyopie 147 2.10. Industriezugehörigkeit und Kapitalmarktdruck 148 2.11. Industriezugehörigkeit und Managermyopie 152 VI. DISKUSSION UND AUSBLICK 156 1. ZUSAMMENFASSUNG UND DISKUSSION DER ERGEBNISSE 156 2. FAZIT 162 3. LIMITATIONEN DER VORLIEGENDEN ARBEIT 163 4. STÄRKEN DER VORLIEGENDEN ARBEIT 164 5. ZUKÜNFTIGE FORSCHUNG 165 6. AUSBLICK 167 ANHANG 1: DAS MODELL VON STEIN (1989) 170 ANHANG 2: FRAGEBOGEN 174 ANHANG 3: BEGLEITSCHREIBEN DEUTSCHE BÖRSE AG 176 ANHANG 4: ANTWORTEN DER FRAGEBOGENUMFRAGE 177 ANHANG 5: INTERVIEW-LEITFADEN 178 LITERATURVERZEICHNIS 180 VERZEICHNIS DER ZITIERTEN ZEITUNGSARTIKEL 199 VERZEICHNIS DER ZITIERTEN GESETZE UND VERORDNUNGEN 200

I början på år 2020 klassificerades spridningen av covid-19 som ett globalt hälsoproblem. I mars samma år fick utbrottet benämningen pandemi, vilket är den högsta nivån av en folksjukdom. Spridningen av covid-19 har inneburit stora konsekvenser som medfört omställningar för världens alla länder, företag och människor. Pandemins oförutsägbara framväxt resulterade i en ekonomisk kris, som innebär att en rubbning skett i marknadens finansiella funktion att tillgodose likviditetsbehov och omfördela risker inom ekonomin. Tidigare studier har påvisat att företag som befinner sig i ekonomiskt turbulenta perioder, likt kriser, har medfört att företagsledningar vänder sig till redovisningstekniker som medför positiva effekter i rapportsammanställningar. I vetenskapligt sammanhang benämns dessa redovisningstekniker som earnings management. Studiens syfte är att undersöka om earnings management förekommit i svenska marknadsnoterade företag åren innan utbrottet av covid-19. Dessutom ämnar studien till att kontrollera om pandemins utbrott ökat förekomsten av earnings management bland svenska börsnoterade företag.Studiens genomförande grundade sig i en kvantitativ forskningsansats där kvantifierbara data sammanställts genom företags årsredovisningar från börslistorna large cap, mid cap och small cap för urvalsperioden 2012 till 2020. Mätningen av earnings management har skett genom sammanställningar av godtyckliga periodiseringar framräknade genom den modifierade Jones-modellen. Studiens resultat visade att de analyserade företagen tillämpade earnings management under perioden innan utbrottet av pandemin. Vidare visade resultatet att tillämpningen av earnings management inte ökat signifikant efter utbrottet av pandemin, vilket gick emot författarnas antaganden baserade på tidigare forskning och studier. Resultatet visade däremot en signifikant skillnad på tillämpad earnings management med hänsyn till företagsstorlek, i enlighet med tidigare studier och redovisningsteorier. Studiens slutsats innebar att fenomenet earnings management förekommer i svenska marknadsnoterade företag. Studien har däremot inte kunnat påvisa en signifikant ökning av tillämpad earnings management efter utbrottet av pandemin. Dessutom har forskarna påvisat att mindre företag tillämpar earnings management i en större utsträckning i jämförelse med större bolag. / In early 2020, the spread of covid-19 was classified as a global health problem. In March of the same year, the outbreak was designated a pandemic, which is the highest level of a public disease. The spread of covid-19 has had a major impact that has caused upheaval for every country, business and person in the world. The unpredictable emergence of the pandemic resulted in an economic crisis, disrupting the financial function of the market to meet liquidity needs and reallocate risk within the economy. Previous studies have shown that firms in economically turbulent periods, like crises, have caused managers to turn to accounting techniques that produce positive effects in reporting summaries. In the scientific context, these accounting techniques are referred to as earnings management. The aim of this study is to investigate whether earnings management has occurred in Swedish listed companies in the years prior to the outbreak of Covid-19. In addition, the study aims to test whether the pandemic outbreak has increased the prevalence of earnings management among Swedish listed companies. The study was based on a quantitative research approach in which quantifiable data were compiled through firms annual reports from the large cap, mid cap and small cap listings for the sample period 2012 to 2020. The measurement of earnings management was done through compilations of arbitrary accruals computed by the modified Jones model. The results of the study showed that the analyzed firms applied earnings management in the period before the outbreak of the pandemic. Furthermore, the results showed that the application of earnings management did not increase significantly after the outbreak of the pandemic, which was contrary to the authors assumptions based on previous research and studies. However, the results showed a significant difference in the application of earnings management with respect to firm size, in line with previous studies and accounting theories. The study concluded that earnings management is a used phenomenon in Swedish listed companies. However, the study did not find a significant increase in the use of earnings management after the outbreak of the pandemic. In addition, the researchers have shown that smaller companies apply earnings management to a greater extent in comparison with larger companies. This master's thesis is written in Swedish.

Bakgrund: Under 2020 drabbades hela världen av Covid-19, vilket påverkade världsekonomin negativt och satte företag i ekonomiska svårigheter. För att få bukt på dessa ekonomiska problem beslutades det i Sverige att företag skulle få möjlighet att söka korttidsstöd. Kortidsstödet skulle användas till att betala lönekostnader för anställdas minskade arbetstider. Korttidsstödet kom dock med vissa krav och om dessa inte uppfylldes behövde stödet betalas tillbaka, vilket benämns som återkrav. Eftersom Covid-19 innebar ekonomiska svårigheter för många företag, borde detta enligt tidigare forskning möjligen gett dem incitament att använda sig av Earnings Management (EM). EM är ett sätt att dölja sin sanna ekonomiska situation och innebär att chefer medvetet manipulerar företagets finansiella rapporter för att påverka resultat eller för att vilseleda intressenter. Accrual-Based Earnings Management (AEM), en typ av EM, innebär att resultatet manipuleras genom användandet av diskretionära periodiseringar (DP). Syfte: Syftet med denna studie är att förklara hur faktorer relaterade till Covid-19 påverkar användningen av Accrual-Based Earnings Management inom svenska aktiebolag efter Covid-19. Metod: Studien har en deduktiv ansats där hypoteser har härletts och processen för datainsamlingen har styrts utifrån den existerande teorin. Ett elektiskt angreppsätt med flera teorier har valts då studien har ett empiriskt fokus. För att förklara användningen av AEM vid en tidpunkt valdes en tvärsnittsdesign, där det empiriska materialet består av sekundärdata.  Resultat: Det finns inget signifikant samband mellan korttidsstöd och resultathöjande alternativt resultatsänkande AEM. Det finns inte heller något signifikant samband mellan återkrav och resultathöjande AEM.  Bidrag: Studien bidrar till komplettande forskning inom ett redan väletablerat ämne men under en annan tidsperiod och med andra faktorer. / Background: During 2020 the world was affected by Covid-19, which negatively impacted the world economy and put companies in financial difficulties. In order to overcome these financial problems, it was decided in Sweden that companies would be given the opportunity to apply for short-term support. The short-term support would be used to pay salary costs for employees' reduced working hours. However, the short-term support came with certain requirements and had to be paid back if these requirements were not fulfilled, which is referred to as “repayment”. Since Covid-19 meant financial difficulties for many companies, according to previous research, this should possibly incentivize them to use Earnings Management (EM). EM is a way to hide one's true financial situation and involves managers deliberately manipulating the company's financial reports to influence results or to mislead stakeholders. Accrual-Based Earnings Management (AEM), a type of EM, implies that the result is manipulated through the use of discretionary accruals. Purpose: The purpose of this study is to explain how factors related to Covid-19 affect the use of Accrual-Based Earnings Management within Swedish joint-stock companies after Covid-19.  Method: The study has a deductive approach where hypotheses have been derived and the process of data collection has been controlled based on the already existing theory. An eclectic approach with several theories has been chosen as the study has an empirical focus. To explain the use of AEM at one point, a cross-sectional design was chosen, where the empirical material consists of secondary data. Result: There is no significant relationship between short-term support and earnings-increasing or earnings-decreasing AEM. There is also no significant relationship between repayment and earnings-increasing AEM. Contribution: The study contributes to complementary research in an already well-established topic, but in a different time period and with different factors.

本文主要目的係探討過度自信之管理者，是否傾向發行美國存託憑證，以及發行美國存託憑證之公司，是否會進行盈餘管理。本文衡量過度自信的方法，為公司之資產成長率；衡量盈餘管理的方法，則參照Zang (2012) 之研究，分為應計項目盈餘管理與實質盈餘管理；在實質盈餘管理方面，分別測試單一變數及合併變數。本研究之對象為1993年至2015年，中國在美國發行存託憑證之公司。實證結果發現，具過度自信管理者之中國公司，較願意赴美發行存託憑證，進入此較具競爭力之市場；除此之外，中國在美國發行存託憑證之公司，不管在應計項目，或實質項目方面，皆較不傾向進行盈餘管理。 / The main purpose of this study is to examine whether the overconfident managers tend to issue American Depositary Receipts (ADRs), and whether the firms issuing ADRs tend to conduct earnings management. In this paper, I employ the rate of asset growth as the proxy to measure overconfidence of managers, and follow the methods by Zang (2012) to measure earnings management including real earnings management and accrual earnings management. In addition, single variables and combined variables are used to test real earnings management. The research samples consist of Chinese firms which released ADRs for the period 1993 - 2015. The empirical results show that Chinese firms with overconfident managers tend to issue ADRs, indicating they are willing to enter the competitive market. The results also show that Chinese firms which issue ADRs are less likely to conduct real earnings management and accrual earnings management.

隨著1997的亞洲金融風暴、1998下半年陸續發生的台灣上市公司財務危 機事件，以及2001年底美國大型公司企業弊案的層出不窮，除了一再地打擊投資人的信心，擾亂資本市場秩序外，也使投資者與證券主管機關體認到，完善的公司治理機制（corporate governance），是健全資本市場與吸引國際資金的關鍵因素之一。 公司組織的代理關係衍生出盈餘操縱與公司治理的相關問題，本研究在 第一個部分所欲探討的是公司治理的機制是否能抑制管理階層進行盈餘操 縱?另外，一般投資大眾所關心的是他們的投資標的是否為其帶來優異的報酬，而公司股價報酬率是否能提高，除了外在總體經濟的因素外，不外乎是公司本身的變數，因此本研究以董監事特性、經理人特性、關係人特性及股權結構四個構面之公司治理變數，以及盈餘操縱程度為控制變數，探討公司治理與投資人的股價報酬二者間之關係。 研究結果顯示：當董事長兼任總經理時，公司盈餘操縱程度較高。超額 關係人資金往來比例越高，盈餘操縱幅度越高。董事會規模越大，盈餘操縱程度越低。監察人總人數、董監事質押比例、控制權與盈餘分配權的偏離程度、董事會獨立程度、超額關係人進銷貨比例、機構投資人持股比例、大股東持股比例與盈餘操縱的幅度都沒有顯著相關性。 董事會規模與公司公司股價報酬率呈負相關。監察人總人數與公司股價 報酬率成正相關。董監事質押比率與公司股價報酬率呈負相關。董事會獨立程度與公司股價報酬率呈正相關。超額關係人進銷貨比例與股價報酬率呈正相關。控制權與盈餘分配權偏離程度、經理人是否由董事長兼任、超額關係人資金往來比例、機構投資人持股比例、外部大股東持股比例均與股價報酬率無顯著相關性。 / Along with Asia monetary crush in 1997, Taiwan business financial crisis happened one after another in 1998 and American large enterprise fraud cases appeared again and again in 2001, not only to beat investors’ confidence and to disturb capital market order, but also make investors and the authorities concerned recognize that a complete corporate governance mechanism is a key factor of healing capital market and attracting international capital. The agency relation of business organization derives problems about earnings manipulation and corporate governance. The first part of this research is want to discuss if corporate governance mechanism can restrain management level from manipulating earnings. The most concern of common investors is that whether their invest target can bring them well return. If we want to raise the stock-price return of a company, in addition to macro economic factors, the condition of business itself is really important. The second part of this research set broad characteristics, management characteristics, related party transaction and equity structure as research variables and earnings manipulation degree as control variables to discuss the relation between corporate governance and stock-price return. The result of the first portion of research shows that when CEO simultaneously serves as Chairman of the board and exceed-ratio of related party capital intercourse is higher, the firms have higher earnings manipulation. There is a negative relation between broad size and earnings manipulation. Total number of supervisors, the rate of directors’ and supervisors’shareholdings that are pledged, the deviation between cash-flow right and seating right, broad independence, exceed-ratio of related party purchase and sales, institutional investor holding rate, outside blockholders holding rate have no relation with earnings manipulation. The result of the second portion of research shows that total number of supervisors, broad independence and exceed-ratio of related party purchase and sales have positive relation with stock-price return. There is a negative relation between stock-price return and broad size and the rate of directors’ and supervisors’ shareholdings that are pledged. CEO simultaneously serves as Chairman of the board, the deviation between cash-flow rights and seating rights, exceed-ratio of related party capital intercourse, institutional investor holding rate, outside blockholders holding rate have no relation with stock-price return.

本研究以民國79年至民國87年為研究期間，探討當景氣出現波動時，企業是否有操縱盈餘的行為。首先探討景氣循環對企業經營績效的關連性，觀察不同產業企業之經營績效是否因景氣變動而有所差異。其次針對景氣循環與企業盈餘管理程度之關連性進行研究，探討不同產業企業盈餘管理的程於景氣擴張期與收縮期有無顯著的差異。 實證結果顯示：(1)整體而言，景氣循環與全體樣本公司之經營績效呈顯著的正向關係，個別產業而言，紡織業、塑化業及建築業在景氣擴張時期之經營績效顯著優於收縮時期；(2)當以ODACA（以總資產及成長率調整後與營業有關之裁決性應計項目的變動取絕對值）作為盈餘管理之代理變數探討景氣循環與盈餘管理之關聯性時，就全體樣本公司而言，企業在景氣處於收縮期的盈餘管理程度顯著大於擴張時期，就個別產業之分析結果，食品業及塑化業盈餘管理的程度於景氣收縮時期明顯大於擴張時期；(3)當以ODACS（以淨銷貨收入及成長率調整後與營業有關之裁決性應計項目的變動取絕對值）作為盈餘管理之替代變數探討景氣循環與盈餘管理之關聯性時，以整體樣本來說，企業在景氣處於收縮期的盈餘管理程度顯著大於擴張時期，觀察個別產業之情形顯示食品業、電機業及塑化業盈餘管理的程度在景氣收縮時期明顯高於景氣擴張時期；(4)當以NOI（(以總資產調整後業外收益變動取絕對值）作為盈餘管理之替代變數探討景氣循環與盈餘管理之關聯性時，就整體而言，樣本公司在景氣處於收縮期以業外淨損益操弄盈餘的程度顯著大於擴張時期，依個別產業觀察，電子業、電機業及建築業在景氣收縮時期利用業外損益管理盈餘的程度顯著高於擴張時期。 關鍵字：盈餘管理、經營績效、景氣循環 / Focusing on the firms listed on Taiwan Stock Exchange over the period of 1990 to 1998, this thesis investigates whether the sample firms manipulate earnings in the face of business cycle. First, this thesis examines the association between business cycle and corporate operating performance. Furthermore, it explores the relationship between business cycle and the magnitude of earnings management. The empirical results document that 1) business cycle is positively and significantly associated with the whole sample firms' operating performance and the relationship is founded in textile industry, plastic-chemical industry and construction industry. 2) When using the absolute value of changes of operating discretionary accruals adjusted by total assets and growth rate (ODACA) as a proxy variable for the magnitude earnings management, the empirical findings reveal that the ODACA of whole sample firms are significantly greater in contraction period than in expansion period. The results are also founded in food industry and plastic-chemical industry. 3) When using the absolute value of changes of operating discretionary accruals adjusted by net sales and growth rate (ODACS) as a proxy variable for the magnitude of earnings management, the empirical evidence indicates that the ODACS of all sample firms are significantly greater in contraction period than in expansion period. The evidence is also founded in food industry and plastic-chemical industry. 4) When using the absolute value of changes of non-operating income adjusted by total assets (NOI) as a proxy variable for the magnitude of earnings management, the empirical findings indicates that the NOI of all sample firms are significantly greater in contraction period than in expansion period. The results are also founded in electronic industry, electrical industry and construction industry. Key Words : earnings management, operating performance, business cycle

本文討論退休金長期預期報酬率之設定。根據會計公報規定，公司之退休金長期預期報酬率必須符合其資產配置。但是在本文中我們發現資產配置並無法有效的反應公司的退休金長期預期報酬率，因此我們提出展望理論及盈餘管理兩種理論來解釋退休金長期預期報酬率之設定。我們發現經理人企圖透過改變退休金長期預期報酬率的假設來進行盈餘管理，同時退休金長期預期報酬率也會因為公司的風險態度而有所改變。 / Abstract: We try to find out the considerations for managers to set their assumptions of expected long term rate of return on pension plan assets (ROPA). First, we use the asset allocations of pension funds and historical returns to calculate the expected rate of return based on historical asset returns (EROPA). There is difference between ROPA are EROPA, suggests that asset allocations are not the only consideration when managers setting their ROPA assumption. Two theories are examined in this paper to explain such difference between ROPA and EROPA: earnings management and prospect theory. We use two models to test the earnings management, single accrual model and threshold model. We find that the intentions to smooth the reported income are the main incentives for managers to manipulation their ROPA. The incentive to do earnings management can partly explain the difference between ROPA and EROPA. However, in threshold model, we can not observe any evidence in our research. We also introduce prospect theory to examine the risk attitude. We find that managers’ risk attitude affect the setting of assumptions, too. We conclude prospect theory provides a good explanation of the difference between ROPA and EROPA.

Forskningsproblem Earnings management, i studien uttryckt som resultatmanipulering, handlar om redovisningsval där företagsledningen vilseleder företagets intressenter om dess verkliga ekonomiska prestation. Behov finns att förklara skillnader i användandet av resultatmanipulering mellan länder. Syfte Syftet med denna studie är att förklara resultatmanipulering i nordiska börsbolag utifrån kulturens inverkan på redovisningsvalet. Metod Utifrån en deduktiv ansats härleds en hypotes som sedan prövas genom våra empiriska observationer. Observationerna samlas in genom en dokumentstudie av nordiska börsbolags årsredovisningar. Resultat Studiens resultat visar att resultatmanipulering är mer förekommande i norska än svenska bolag. Vidare visar resultatet att osäkerhetsundvikande kan förklara en del av användandet av resultatmanipulering, men att övriga kulturella dimensioner inte kan göra det. Kunskapsbidrag Studien bidrar till en ökad förståelse av redovisningsval i nordiska börsbolag. / Problem Earnings management is the common expression to explain the management’s use of accounting choices that mislead its stakeholders about the business performance. There are needs to explain differences in the use of Earnings management between different countries. Purpose The aim of this study is to explain the cultural factors impact on the use of Earnings management within Nordic stock exchange companies. Method Based on a deductive approach we have derived one hypothesis that is tested by our empirical observations. The observations are gathered through a document study of Nordic listed companies’ annual reports. Results The results indicate that Earnings management is more frequently used in Norwegian companies compared to Swedish. Uncertainty avoidance seems to explain some of the variation in Earnings management. However the remaining cultural dimensions fail to explain the variation between the Nordic countries. Contribution The contribution of the study is an increased understanding of accounting choices in Nordic listed companies.