Researchers have explored how different balances of first language (L1) and target language (TL) use in a foreign language classroom impact students' fluency and proficiency in TL acquisition. Research has shown that the use of the L1 in a foreign language classroom is done in order to determine the most effective way to raise the proficiency of second language learners to the level that is expected within their classrooms (Lee & Muncie, 2006). The use of the L1 is not something that is uncommon, even in the highest levels of foreign language instruction, although some believe it could inhibit learner growth in target language (TL) acquisition (Tanveer, 2007). Some scholars contend that there is a place for the L1 to be used in a second language classroom, rather than relying on complete usage of the TL (Biggs, 1999). Results have been mixed when it comes to whether or not the L1 should be used as much as the TL, and studies have seldom investigated what students and teachers believe regarding that matter. To this end, the present study examines the impact of the use of the L1 vs the use of the TL on 50 students at different levels in the French language classroom. Subjects were all enrolled in French classes ranging from the 101-level to the 201-level, and the 8 student instructors teaching these levels also participated in this study. Both a student survey and a teacher survey were administered at the end of the semester in order to look at the use of the TL vs the use of the L1 among students and teachers in their classrooms. Results show that the utilization of the L1 in foreign language classrooms is preferred by the students but that it is not fully justified. Numerous proponents of L1 use (Atkinson, 1987; Cook 2001; Swain & Lapkin, 2000; Wells, 1999) have cautioned against excessive use, instead recommending that it be used judiciously, and according to learner need. Future researchers might consider surveying students who are learning in an environment where L1 use is similar to student demand on this survey (very high, especially for things like giving instructions), as well as surveying students who are exclusively using TL in their learning environment.

The focus of this study is the potential reduction of first language (L1) use during group activities in the second language (L2) classroom through the introduction of L2 support phrases with the goal of enabling learners to carry out three information exchange tasks without resorting to communication in L1. Many language instructors tend to limit group interaction because learners would typically revert to the language they are comfortable with and thus receive less comprehensive input and feedback from peers or get a chance to modify their output in the target language. Group work in the second language classroom is, however, most beneficial as it maximizes the number of turns students take and their overall speech production.  In the study I conducted, the participants were 16 students, forming eight pairs, from beginning Spanish language classes. Those in the L2 support class received linguistic assistance while those in the no L2 support class did not receive any additional help during the three information-exchange activities completed by the participants four to five weeks apart. The transcribed learner-learner interactions were analyzed in order to reveal the extent to which beginning Spanish language learners use the L1 rather than the target language during group work, and to make observations about the communicative functions of the languages used.  The findings revealed that providing L2 support phrases to manage tasks and deliberate over language use did not have an impact on the amount of the use of L1. On the contrary, it demonstrates that verbalizing less in the L1 in learner-learner interactions does not produce more target language. Thus, this study contributes to the theoretical explanation for the use of an L1 during learner-learner interactions, which does not always align with pedagogical practices. / Spanish

The purpose of this study is to gain deeper knowledge on how Pre-school teachers work to stimulate language development with children who are multilingual.  This study was conducted through qualitative interviews with seven Pre-school teachers who all work with multilingual children. The data of this study was then analyzed using a phenomenographic method approach and analysis model. By using a phenomenographic method approach I could gain knowledge about Pre-school teachers’ perception on how to support and stimulate multilingual children’s language development.  The result showed that there are various perceptions on how to work with linguistic diversity and how to work with multilingual children’s language development. The result also show that Pre-school teachers’ use a variety of different strategies to support and stimulate the language development. Among other things the result showed that by having a genuine interest in the children’s different languages and raising awareness about multilingualism are means of promoting language development. Furthermore, the result showed that different supportive strategies may be used to promote language development. Examples of these include signing as augmentative and alternative communication (SAAC), image support and communication maps. The study also sheds light upon the Pre-school teachers’ different perceptions on what they find challenging as opposed to the opportunities that may be found when working with children’s multilingualism. The result showed that one perception was multilingual colleagues could be seen both as a challenge and opportunity in the work with language development of multilingual children. / Syftet med studien var att öka kunskaperna kring hur förskollärare arbetade med flerspråkighet för att främja språkutvecklingen hos barn med annat modersmål än svenska. Studien genomfördes med semistrukturerade intervjuer med sju förskollärare som alla arbetar i barngrupper med språklig mångfald. Data som samlades in analyserades med hjälp av en fenomenografisk metodansats. En fenomenografisk metodansats valdes för att synliggöra förskollärarnas uppfattningar och tankar kring arbetet med flerspråkighet. Det resultatet visade var att det finns variationer i hur förskollärare uppfattar arbetet med flerspråkighet samt hur de arbetar för att stödja och främja flerspråkiga barns språkutveckling. Resultatet visar också att förskollärare använder sig av strategier på olika sätt för att stötta och stimulera språkutvecklingen. Respondenterna uppger att ett genuint intresse för barnens olika modersmål och att arbeta för att höja värdet av flerspråkighet kan främja språkutvecklingen. Dessutom uppger respondenterna att de använder olika former av stöd i det språkutvecklande arbetet. Exempel på stöd inkluderar tecken som alternativ kompletterande kommunikation (TAKK), bildstöd och kommunikationskartor. Studiens resultat belyser även en variation i vad förskollärarna uppfattade som utmaningar respektive möjligheter i arbetet med flerspråkighet. Några respondenter uppger att kollegors bristande kunskaper i svenska kan vara en utmaning medan flera respondenter uppger att flerspråkiga kollegor kan ses som en bra tillgång i det språkutvecklande arbetet.

The goal of this paper was to investigate if code-switching is a beneficial language strategy pertaining to pupils’ oral language development. Moreover, the purpose was to examine what teachers need to consider when they use the pupils’ first language in the classroom. Previous studies are in conflict of whether or not code-switching is a useful language strategy and also of how it should be used in the language classroom. This synthesis attempted to answer if code-switching support oral language development in the second language (L2) classroom in secondary school in Sweden and what needs to be considered when using code-switching in an educational context. The results suggested that low-proficiency learners benefit from first language (L1) usage, whereas high-proficiency students seem to both prefer and benefit more from an English-only classroom. Findings also propose that maximum exposure of the target language (TL) is to be preferred, as long as it is not too difficult for pupils to comprehend. Together, these findings suggest that teachers’ and pupils’ usage of code-switching can be a beneficial language strategy, but that it is crucial for teachers to know their pupils’ language level and when to use code-switching.

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether Cambodian children who attended a native language preschool would acquire a broader linguistic and experiential base in their native language and in English than a comparable group who have not attended any preschool. Specifically the study looked at the children's native language fluency, English fluency, and academic skills in elementary school. The sample of this study consisted of Cambodian children who had attended a native language preschool and who had remained in the same school district and a control group of Cambodian children from the same school district who had not attended preschool but who were similar economically and socially. An existing database was used to measure native language fluency, English fluency, whether or not the children met grade level standards and whether they were socially/emotionally prepared for school. It was found that although there was a difference in native language fluency there was no significant difference in English fluency or in meeting grade level standards. The findings suggest that further study is needed to determine long-term success academically between the two groups.

This systematic literature review examines the language use in the EFL classroom in lower secondary school. It aims to investigate how the target language, English, and local languages are used. Furthermore, teachers’ as well as students’ views on the language use in the classroom were investigated. This was done by compiling and comparing the findings of eight peer- reviewed research articles about the topic. The results show that language practices as well as views differ between teachers and their pupils. However, the general picture shows that, although English is the main language in the EFL classroom, there are contexts in which the pupil’s native language can be used beneficially.

I denna studie har gymnasieelevers självförtroende i relation till tal i svenskämnet undersökts med ett genusperspektiv. Syftet med studien var att öka kunskapen kring manliga och kvinnliga elevers självförtroende och självkritik i olika talsituationer i klassrummet samt att belysa och problematisera könsspecifika mönster. Studien var kvalitativ och använde fokusgruppsintervjuer som metod. Materialet har analyserats med hjälp av kritisk diskursanalys och genussystemteorin. I resultatet urskiljs fem diskurser; (1) kompetensdiskurs, (2) prestationsdiskurs, (3) dikotomisk könsdiskurs, (4) maskulinitetsdiskurs och (5) nervositetsdiskurs. Därtill visade resultatet att inom diskurserna konstruerar eleverna sig själva och sina klasskamrater som både kompetenta och inkompetenta talare i ett komplext nät av olika konflikterande genuskontrakt och diskurser. / In the present study, the self-esteem of pupils at upper secondary school was explored in regard to speech contexts in first language studies. Moreover, it was studied with a gender perspective. The aim of the study was to increase knowledge of male and female students’ self-esteem and self-criticism in different speech contexts in the classroom and to shed light on and problematize specific gender patterns. The study was qualitative and used focus group interviews as a method. The material was analyzed with critical discourse analysis combined with a gender perspective. In the results, five discourses were identified: (1) a discourse of competence, (2) a discourse of performance, (3) a dichotomous gender discourse, (4) a masculinity discourse and finally (5) a discourse of nervousness. Furthermore, the results showed that within the discourses, students construct themselves and their peers as competent and incompetent speakers simultaneously in a complex web of different and conflicting gender roles and discourses.

This cross-sectional study extended Snyder's Hope Theory (1991) by analyzing the difference in trait hope levels, pathway thinking, and agency thinking of pre-literate (no prior access to literacy) and non-literate (access to literacy, but little or no prior literacy education) Haitian adults. The data were derived from archival records of 135 students enrolled in Haitian-Kreyol adult literacy classes in Petit-Goave, Haiti. Mann-Whitney U results indicated that there were no significant differences in trait hope, pathway thinking, or agency thinking between the pre-literate and non-literate Haitian adults. Both groups reported average trait hope, average pathway thinking, and low agency thinking. Potential implications for adult literacy program and curriculum developers, evaluators, and teachers are discussed.

Following a usage-based approach to language acquisition, lexically specific patterns are considered to be important building blocks for language productivity and feature heavily both in child-directed speech and in the early speech of children (Arnon, Inbal & Morten H. Christiansen. 2017. The role of multiword building blocks in explaining L1-L2 differences. Topics in Cognitive Science 9(3). 621–636; Tomasello, Michael. 2003. Constructing a language: A usagebased theory of language acquisition. Cambridge: Harvard University Press). In order to account for patterns, the traceback method has been widely applied in research on first language acquisition to test the hypothesis that children’s utterances can be accounted for on the basis of a limited inventory of chunks and partially schematic units (Lieven, Elena, Dorothé Salomo & Michael Tomasello. 2009. Two-year-old children’s production of multiword utterances: A usage-based analysis. Cognitive Linguistics 20(3). 481–508). In the current study, we applied the method to code-mixed utterances (n = 1,506) of three German-English bilingual children between 2 and 4 years of age to investigate individual differences in each child’s own inventory of patterns in relation to their input settings. It was shown that units such as I see X as in I see a Kelle ‘I see a trowel’ could be traced back to the child’s own previous productions. More importantly, we see that each child’s inventory of constructions draws heavily on multiword chunks that are strongly dependent on the children’s language input situations.

The aim of this study is to investigate crosslinguistic influence in the Arabic language of Iraqi Arabic-Swedish bilingual children (5-7) who live in Sweden. The scope is to study lexical, morphological and syntactic uses in the children’s speech that do not belong to the Iraqi Arabic variety (IAV). The used research method was interview method that has been applied in a descriptive framework without any normative evaluations. The interviews were based on a series of narrative pictures that had already been designed for the Multilingual Assessment Instrument for Narratives (MAIN). The primary material is a corpus which totals 164 recorded minutes that were obtained from twelve Iraqi Arabic-Swedish bilingual children who are 5-7 years old. The secondary material was sociolinguistic background information that was obtained from the children’s parents by using a questionnaire. The results revealed the following main points: (1) Most of the children’s linguistic uses that did not belong to IAV occurred mainly on the lexical level, less on the morphological level and least on the syntactic level. (2) Not all linguistic uses that do not belong to the IAV indicate a crosslinguistic influence in the children’s language development, because some of these uses occur occasionally. (3) Many linguistic uses that do not belong to the IAV were related to Modern standard Arabic (MSA), other Arabic varieties and Swedish, but some of them, e.g. morphological observations, were not related to a specific language. (4) Diglossia and bilingualism have led to different crosslinguistic influences on the children’s speech. Diglossia has led to lexical influence and bilingualism has led to lexical and syntactic influence. (5) The combination of diglossia and bilingualism can increase the crosslinguistic influence on the bilingual children compared to other bilingual children that do not experience this combination of both phenomena. (6) The fact that the children use MSA spontaneously along with their mother tongue shows that they learn MSA before they start school. (7) Use of other Arabic varieties by the children along with their mother tongue can bring these different Arabic varieties closer to the IAV and may also create a mixed variety in the future, if there is continuous and intensive language contact. (8) The results indicate the possible types of language acquisition for all children’s languages/varieties but without normative evaluation as the following: IAV as L1 (first language/mother tongue), Swedish as L1 or ESLA (early second language acquisition), MSA as ESLA or L2, and other Arabic varieties as ESLA or L2.