The gendered features of children's development in early literacy, particularly those that contribute to the generally poorer performance of boys, were explored in a dual-phase questionnaire study, conducted across schools in South East Queensland. The potential influences of school type (private and state) and gender-composition of a class (mixed-gender and single-gender schools) on performances of boys were tested on two state-wide tests (The Year 2 Diagnostic Net for Reading; The Reading Development Continuum) and a standardised measure (The St Lucia Reading Comprehension Test). Children and parents were surveyed to determine the locus of significant differences between girls and boys in relation to attitudes to reading, being read to and to constructs of self and others as readers. Girls presented as more positive across these measures. They indicated greater interest in reading and being read to. They reported reading across a wider range of genres for both school and recreational purposes and selected reading as a preferred activity in comparison with others. Boys were more reluctant readers. They displayed poorer attitudes generally and reported reading less in quantity and frequency in both school and home settings. The notion of girls and boys maintaining a positive or negative "image" emerged from a small but influential subset. This derivation was consistent with perceptions of gender-bias in gender-preferences. The profile of achievement across the three measures yielded a story of difference. Boys in private school settings were significantly less likely than girls to obtain higher Continuum scores and boys in state school settings were less likely than girls to be rated as proficient in the Year Two Net Test. Boys from private schools and in single-gender situations outperformed all other subgroups on the Net. Yet, they obtained the worst result on the Continuum, and were in the middle rank on the standardised test. Whether in private or state schools, boys were likely to obtain lower average Continuum scores than females. This was a statistically significant difference in the private school sector. While boys in Private Schools were slightly more likely than girls to be rated as proficient in the Year Two Net test, boys in state schools were far less likely than girls to be rated as proficient on the Year Two Net test, a statistically significant difference. Children attending single-gender, private schools attained higher aggregate scores on the attitude subtests of the Continuum than their state school counterparts. However, children in comparable, mixed-gender, private schools performed neither better nor worse than their peers in single-gender private schools. This comparison does not support contentions that single-gender schooling is superior in relation to the literacy achievements of emergent readers. When comparisons were made at the most general level (male vs. female, private vs. state school) gender did not predict scores in the externally administered St. Lucia Reading Comprehension Test scores. The significant relationship for girls at state schools on the Net test and for girls at private schools on the Continuum (both internally-based measures), coupled with the non-significant differences in relation to the St. Lucia Reading Comprehension Test points to the possibility that internally-based ratings are to some extent driven by teacher perceptions of literacy competence, and such perceptions may at times be unreliable. The corollary observation that not only was the measurement of attitude provided by the Continuum Attitude score significantly correlated with the St. Lucia reading test but also that the latter was not directly influenced by gender affirmed the notion that a school culture of gendered literacy is influencing teacher attitudes related to the achievement of literacy. What analyses of home background capture is the surprisingly lack of any connection between these tacitly understood underpinnings of literacy and the achievement thereof. The lack particularly of any connection between the teacher reading to students and the achievement of literacy was also surprising. In relation to literacy practice, the three most highly identified male activities (kicking a ball, computer games, playing outside) grouped to form a distinct factor (subscale) and this factor score was positively associated at a statistically significant level with scores on the St Lucia Reading test. Not only did private school children obtain better scores on the St. Lucia test, it was private school students whose identification of this highly stereotypically set of male activities linked significantly with an external measure of the achievement of literacy. This linkage seems indicative of an enhanced ability to read social codes more generally and is probably reflective of the social space occupied by private school students. In sum, while students, parents, and teachers fairly consistently displayed a heavily gendered culture with regard to literacy, actual achievement levels, attitudes, home background, and literacy practice disconnected from that gendered culture. That is, there appears to be a subtle but important distinction between perception and reality in relation to the achievement of literacy.

<p>Den sociala ångesten många känner i olika situationer kan leda till undvikande, isolering och ibland även kompliceras av depressiva symtom och/eller alkoholanvändning. Huruvida ett samband mellan dessa problem kan visa sig i 16-17 årsåldern undersöktes genom en enkät om nedstämdhet, alkoholanvändning och social ångest. Resultatet visade att nedstämdhet hade en inverkan på grad av social ångest hos båda könen. Dock var tjejer i högre grad än killar mer nedstämda. Tjejer som drack mindre uppvisade en högre grad av social ångest. Alkoholanvändning hängde inte ihop med killars hantering av social ångest. Resultatet tyder på att samband mellan variablerna kan visa sig tidigt. Därför borde resurser sättas in tidigt för att förhindra en negativ utveckling, så att personer kan fungera i samhället.</p> / <p>The social anxiety many people feel in different situations can lead to avoidance, isolation and be complicated with depressive symptoms and/or alcoholuse. Whether it’s possible to find relationships between these syndromes in age 16-17 was investigated through a survey about depression, alcoholuse and social anxiety. The result showed that depression had an impact on level of social anxiety for both sexes. Gals were more depressed than guys, though. Gals who drank less had a higher level of social anxiety. Alcoholuse had no impact in coping with social anxiety for guys. The result showes a connection between the variables that can be seen early. Therefore, resources should be available to prevent a negative development, so that people can function in society.</p>

<p>Studies carried out by different scholars have shown that the social roles society assigns to women and men create differences in how the genders use language. However, there is little previous research in the domain of gender and topic shift or initiation. This essay aims to investigate possible gender differences in topic shift and initiation in multiparty conversation among second language learners of English in upper secondary school. The three group discussions were recorded in a classroom setting and the data collected was transcribed. The topical shifts in the transcripts were coded using the Topical Episode Analysis (TEA) and the episode shifts in each conversation were analyzed on the basis of gender distribution and type of shift. In addition, the findings of the three groups were compared and discussed. The main result of this study was that the boys initiated 100 percent more shifts than the girls. The boys took up more linguistic space and dominated the topical shifts in the conversation which indicates that gender differences in topic shift and initiation exists, a finding that is consistent with previous research within the field of gender and language. In conclusion, gender differences were found between how the girls and the boys participating in this study shifted and initiated topics. The boys initiated more shifts than the girls in the multiparty conversations.</p>

<p>I denna studie har insamling av referensdata över språkförståelse hos treåringar med typisk språkutveckling genomförts. Till detta har bedömningsmaterialet Sofialådan (Westerlund & Öfverholm-Engström, 1995) använts. Sofialådan bygger som flera andra språkförståelsematerial på den s.k. act-outmetoden där man låter barnet agera med föremål efter en given instruktion. Med hjälp av föremålen i Sofialådan bedöms barnets förmåga att identifiera grundfärger och storleksbegrepp, kategorisera, flytta föremålenligt olika prepositionsanvisningar samt att följa flerledade instruktioner. Studien omfattar 95 barn i åldrarna 3;0-3;11 från kommunala förskolor i Uppsala kommun. Det finns ett samband mellan resultat och ålder så till vida att de äldre barnen får högre resultat på de flesta deluppgifter. En signifikant könsskillnad föreligger. På de flesta deluppgifter har en högre andel flickor än pojkar full poäng. Initialt genomfördes vissa ändringar, gällande bl.a. poängsättning och specifika instruktioner, för att förenkla utövandet. En manual har utformats inom ramen för detta arbete. Den innehåller tydliga instruktioner för utövande, en mall för resultatanalys, en förbättrad svarsblankett samt erhållen referensdata.</p> / <p>In this study, a collection of reference data over language comprehension in three-yearolds with typical language development has been implemented. A Swedish material for assessment of language comprehension called Sofialådan (Westerlund & Öfverholm-Engström, 1995) was used. Sofialådan is, like several other language materials, built on the act out method using objects which the child is expected to place in a certain way. By using the objects of Sofialådan the child’s ability to identify basic colors and size concepts, to categorize, to move objects in accordance with directions of prepositions and to comply more complex instructions is evaluated. The study covers 95 children aged 3:0-3:11 from municipal day nurseries in the municipality of Uppsala, Sweden. There is a link between performance and age in the sense that the older children perform higher on most sub-tasks. A significant gender difference exists. In most sub-tasks a higher proportion of girls than boys have full score. To simplify the procedure some changes in specific instructions and task-score were made. A manual containing clear instructions for implementation and the obtained reference data has been designed within the framework of this study.</p>

<p>The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the knowledge of, attitudes toward, and experiences of the emergency contraceptive pill (ECP), sexual behaviour, and pornography consumption among high school students and young people. Data were obtained by questionnaires (studies I, II, and III), and by qualitative in-depth interviews (study IV). </p><p>A majority of 16-year old high-school students were aware that ECP existed, and knew where to obtain it. Attitudes toward using ECP were generally positive, but more girls than boys were hesitant as to whether ECP should be available without a prescription. Of those having experienced sexual intercourse, more than one fourth stated that they themselves or their partner had ever used ECP (I). </p><p>Almost half of the 16-year old high-school students surveyed (46%) had had sexual intercourse, a number similar in studies conducted 10 and 20 years earlier. Use of contraceptives at first intercourse had increased (to 76%) and use of alcohol had decreased (to 23%). More students in practical rather than theoretical programs smoked, had sexual intercourse at an earlier age, had more partners, and used contraceptives at first intercourse less often (II).</p><p>Three out of four 18-year old students had had sexual intercourse, of which almost three quarters reported contraceptive use at first intercourse. Anal intercourse was reported by one sixth, with infrequent condom use. Males who consumed more pornography were more likely than males who consumed less pornography to engage in a variety of sexual activities, as were males with an early age at first sexual intercourse (III).</p><p>The core category that emerged in the interviews was “Living with the current sexual norm”, pornography created sexual expectations and demands. The interviewees expressed contradictory feelings towards pornography and felt that sexuality was separated from intimacy. In order to deal with the current sexual norm, participants had different individual handling strategies, including liberal-, normalization-, distance-, feminist- and conservative strategies (IV).</p><p>Overall, the studies highlight several differences between genders and between students attending practical- and theoretical study programs in questions concerning ECP, sexual behaviour and pornography. These differences should be addressed while planning for counselling and sex education. We suggest that health- and school personnel discuss how sexuality is portrayed in pornographic material with young people.</p>

<p><b>Aims</b><i>: </i>The general aim of this thesis was to describe the life situation of women and men during their first year after myocardial infarction (MI) with regard to problems in daily life, how they coped with them, the social support available and the patients’ perceived quality of life (QoL). An additional aim was to examine differences over time and between women and men in coping, social support and QoL. <b>Methods</b><i>:</i> A consecutive series of 74 women and 97 men were selected 1 month after MI and followed over the first year. A qualitative approach was used to describe experiences of everyday life of 20 women and 19 men from the study group, from the onset of MI through the first months after the event (retrospectively). Focus was on managing problems and support from the network (<b>I</b>). Also experiences at 4 to 6 months and expectations of the future were explored (<b>II</b>). Coping, social support and QoL were compared between women and men both with a cross-sectional (at 1 month; 74 women and 97 men; <b>III</b>) as well as with a longitudinal design (at 1, 4 and 12 months; 60 women and 88 men; <b>IV</b>). <b>Findings</b><i>: </i>Physical symptoms and emotional distress were the most commonly described problems during the first months after MI. The patients managed the problems by negotiating with themselves, relying on their own capabilities, changing attitudes and behaviour and taking their own decisions. The network was generally supportive but also communication problems were described (<b>I</b>). Many of the patients had not established a stable health condition after 6 months. They managed the consequences of their disease, found a meaning in what had happened, and confidence in the future. The support from their social network encouraged them to move on (<b>II</b>). Women used more evasive and supportive coping than men 1 month after MI. More women perceived support being available from grandchildren and friends and more men from their partners. Compared with men, women rated lower health-related QoL and QoL (<b>III</b>). Coping and social support were stable over time, women used more evasive coping than men and health-related QoL increased for both women and men. (<b>IV</b>). <b>Conclusions</b><i>: </i>The first month after MI seems to be a vulnerable period especially for women. They had difficulties interpreting their heart symptoms, did not want to bother others with their worries and rated lower QoL than men. Patients redefined normal life, found hopes for the future and women did not demonstrate a poorer QoL profile than men over time. </p>

Multiple interactions between dopamine (DA), glutamate, and nitric oxide (NO) in mesolimbic and corticostriatal circuits suggest that NO may play a critical role in cocaine-induced behavioral and neural plasticity. Clinical and preclinical studies have revealed that females and adolescents display unique vulnerabilities to the behavioral and neurochemical effects of cocaine as a result of sex-dependent and ontogeny-dependent differences in dopaminergic systems. Thus, my research objectives were to investigate the contributions of the neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS) gene, ontogeny, and gender on the rewarding and sensitizing effects of cocaine. I found that nNOS significantly influences the rewarding aspects of cocaine in adolescent mice and adult male mice (i.e., major deficits in several phases of cocaine conditioned place preference (CPP) were detected in nNOS knockout (KO) adolescent mice and nNOS KO adult male mice). However, the contribution of nNOS was sex-dependent as CPP phases were normal in KO adult females. In contrast to CPP, I found a major ontogeny-dependent contribution of nNOS to the sensitizing effects of cocaine. Namely, while nNOS is essential for the development of behavioral sensitization in adult males, this type of behavioral plasticity develops independently of nNOS during adolescence. The contribution of nNOS was once again sex-dependent as behavioral sensitization was normal in adult KO females. Together, this line of investigation has revealed that the NO-signaling pathway has a) a sex-dependent role in the neuroplasticity underlying cocaine CPP and b) a sex-dependent and ontogeny-dependent influence on cocaine-induced behavioral sensitization. Stereological and western blot analysis revealed that a sensitizing regimen of cocaine resulted in an increase in nNOS and tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) immunoreactivity in the dorsal striatum (dST) of adult, but not adolescent, wild-type (WT) male mice. In the absence of nNOS, dopaminergic neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) were severely reduced and cocaine caused a downregulation of dST TH suggesting that nitrergic levels modulate TH. Thus, the finding that nNOS is essential for the development of sensitization in adulthood, but not adolescence, together with the fact that cocaine upregulated nNOS and TH in the dST in adult, but not adolescent mice, strongly suggest that the nitrergic system underlies behavioral sensitization through modulation of the dopaminergic system in adulthood. These findings suggest different approaches in the clinical treatment of drug craving and drug-seeking behavior in adolescent and adult patients.

The overall aim of this thesis was to investigate the knowledge of, attitudes toward, and experiences of the emergency contraceptive pill (ECP), sexual behaviour, and pornography consumption among high school students and young people. Data were obtained by questionnaires (studies I, II, and III), and by qualitative in-depth interviews (study IV). A majority of 16-year old high-school students were aware that ECP existed, and knew where to obtain it. Attitudes toward using ECP were generally positive, but more girls than boys were hesitant as to whether ECP should be available without a prescription. Of those having experienced sexual intercourse, more than one fourth stated that they themselves or their partner had ever used ECP (I). Almost half of the 16-year old high-school students surveyed (46%) had had sexual intercourse, a number similar in studies conducted 10 and 20 years earlier. Use of contraceptives at first intercourse had increased (to 76%) and use of alcohol had decreased (to 23%). More students in practical rather than theoretical programs smoked, had sexual intercourse at an earlier age, had more partners, and used contraceptives at first intercourse less often (II). Three out of four 18-year old students had had sexual intercourse, of which almost three quarters reported contraceptive use at first intercourse. Anal intercourse was reported by one sixth, with infrequent condom use. Males who consumed more pornography were more likely than males who consumed less pornography to engage in a variety of sexual activities, as were males with an early age at first sexual intercourse (III). The core category that emerged in the interviews was “Living with the current sexual norm”, pornography created sexual expectations and demands. The interviewees expressed contradictory feelings towards pornography and felt that sexuality was separated from intimacy. In order to deal with the current sexual norm, participants had different individual handling strategies, including liberal-, normalization-, distance-, feminist- and conservative strategies (IV). Overall, the studies highlight several differences between genders and between students attending practical- and theoretical study programs in questions concerning ECP, sexual behaviour and pornography. These differences should be addressed while planning for counselling and sex education. We suggest that health- and school personnel discuss how sexuality is portrayed in pornographic material with young people.

<b>Aims</b>: The general aim of this thesis was to describe the life situation of women and men during their first year after myocardial infarction (MI) with regard to problems in daily life, how they coped with them, the social support available and the patients’ perceived quality of life (QoL). An additional aim was to examine differences over time and between women and men in coping, social support and QoL. <b>Methods</b>: A consecutive series of 74 women and 97 men were selected 1 month after MI and followed over the first year. A qualitative approach was used to describe experiences of everyday life of 20 women and 19 men from the study group, from the onset of MI through the first months after the event (retrospectively). Focus was on managing problems and support from the network (<b>I</b>). Also experiences at 4 to 6 months and expectations of the future were explored (<b>II</b>). Coping, social support and QoL were compared between women and men both with a cross-sectional (at 1 month; 74 women and 97 men; <b>III</b>) as well as with a longitudinal design (at 1, 4 and 12 months; 60 women and 88 men; <b>IV</b>). <b>Findings</b>: Physical symptoms and emotional distress were the most commonly described problems during the first months after MI. The patients managed the problems by negotiating with themselves, relying on their own capabilities, changing attitudes and behaviour and taking their own decisions. The network was generally supportive but also communication problems were described (<b>I</b>). Many of the patients had not established a stable health condition after 6 months. They managed the consequences of their disease, found a meaning in what had happened, and confidence in the future. The support from their social network encouraged them to move on (<b>II</b>). Women used more evasive and supportive coping than men 1 month after MI. More women perceived support being available from grandchildren and friends and more men from their partners. Compared with men, women rated lower health-related QoL and QoL (<b>III</b>). Coping and social support were stable over time, women used more evasive coping than men and health-related QoL increased for both women and men. (<b>IV</b>). <b>Conclusions</b>: The first month after MI seems to be a vulnerable period especially for women. They had difficulties interpreting their heart symptoms, did not want to bother others with their worries and rated lower QoL than men. Patients redefined normal life, found hopes for the future and women did not demonstrate a poorer QoL profile than men over time.

I denna studie har insamling av referensdata över språkförståelse hos treåringar med typisk språkutveckling genomförts. Till detta har bedömningsmaterialet Sofialådan (Westerlund &amp; Öfverholm-Engström, 1995) använts. Sofialådan bygger som flera andra språkförståelsematerial på den s.k. act-outmetoden där man låter barnet agera med föremål efter en given instruktion. Med hjälp av föremålen i Sofialådan bedöms barnets förmåga att identifiera grundfärger och storleksbegrepp, kategorisera, flytta föremålenligt olika prepositionsanvisningar samt att följa flerledade instruktioner. Studien omfattar 95 barn i åldrarna 3;0-3;11 från kommunala förskolor i Uppsala kommun. Det finns ett samband mellan resultat och ålder så till vida att de äldre barnen får högre resultat på de flesta deluppgifter. En signifikant könsskillnad föreligger. På de flesta deluppgifter har en högre andel flickor än pojkar full poäng. Initialt genomfördes vissa ändringar, gällande bl.a. poängsättning och specifika instruktioner, för att förenkla utövandet. En manual har utformats inom ramen för detta arbete. Den innehåller tydliga instruktioner för utövande, en mall för resultatanalys, en förbättrad svarsblankett samt erhållen referensdata. / In this study, a collection of reference data over language comprehension in three-yearolds with typical language development has been implemented. A Swedish material for assessment of language comprehension called Sofialådan (Westerlund &amp; Öfverholm-Engström, 1995) was used. Sofialådan is, like several other language materials, built on the act out method using objects which the child is expected to place in a certain way. By using the objects of Sofialådan the child’s ability to identify basic colors and size concepts, to categorize, to move objects in accordance with directions of prepositions and to comply more complex instructions is evaluated. The study covers 95 children aged 3:0-3:11 from municipal day nurseries in the municipality of Uppsala, Sweden. There is a link between performance and age in the sense that the older children perform higher on most sub-tasks. A significant gender difference exists. In most sub-tasks a higher proportion of girls than boys have full score. To simplify the procedure some changes in specific instructions and task-score were made. A manual containing clear instructions for implementation and the obtained reference data has been designed within the framework of this study.