Huruvida män och kvinnors attityd skiljer sig åt när det kommer till risk är ett ämne som det bedrivits mycket forskning kring. Dock var det först med de indivuella premiepen-sionsvalen som det för första gången kunde undersökas från ett rättvisande urval, eftersom hela befolkningen valde och gjorde så under samma period samt med samma bakgrunds information. Med implementeringen av detta nya system kom alltså en möjlighet för varje individ att själv påverka sin pension genom de indivudella valen. Informationen som varje individ erhöll innan valen innehöll risken associerad med varje fond samt fondens ursprung, dessa två variabler testas i uppsatsens empiriska analys. Följaktligen är syftet med denna uppsats att undersöka ifall kvinnor är mindre riskbenägna än män med premiepensionsvalen som analys. Resultaten visar att det inte finns några statistiska bevis som indikerar att kvinnor är mindre riskbenägna än män när det kommer till pensionsplaceringsbeslut. Dock har fondens ursprung en större inverkan på kvinnor än den har på män. Eftersom kvinnor visar en tendens att vara mer benägna att investera i Svenska fonder. Detta kan dock påverkas av faktorer som t.ex. vilken sektor man är anställd i. De erhållna resultaten gör att jag kan instämma med tidigare forskning som hävdar att det inte finns bevis som indikerar att kvinnor är mindre riskbe-nägna än män. / The subject of men and womens attitude difference towards risk has been thoroughly dis-cussed in previous research. However, with the individual allocation choices came an op-portunity to study this subject and to draw conclusions from a fair and representative sample for the first time. The reason is that the entire population choose and did so at ap-proximately the same time, and were given access to the same information prior to choos-ing. With this new system came therefore the opportunity for each individual to invest a portion of their pension. The information, distributed to each individual prior to choosing, contained the risk index and also the origin of the fund and these variables are tested in the empirical analysis in the thesis. Hence, the purpose of this thesis is to investigate whether women are more risk averse than men, using the individual allocation choice as analysis. The results indicated no difference between men and women indicating that there is no statistical evidence that women are more risk averse than men when it comes to individual financial decisions. However the origin of the fund has a larger impact on women in the sense that they have a tendency to be more home biased than men. However, the home biasedness seems to be a variable highly affected by e.g. place of employment. With the obtained result I can concur with previous researches that claim that women are not more risk averse than men.

The use of various types of individualized pay setting has increased dramatically in Sweden. In order for individualized pay to work as an incentive, the pay system has to be perceived as fair. This thesis focuses on the various subjective perceptions that arise in relation to individualized pay setting, since such perceptions may have consequences for employee attitudes and behavior. Using survey data from Swedish human service workers (Study I and II) as well as other public employees (Study III), the general aim was to shed more light on employees’ pay attitudes and fairness perceptions in connection with individualized pay setting. Study I examined some of the explanatory factors behind employee pay attitudes. The results showed that perceiving a clear connection between work results and pay, and perceiving a sound working climate, were both related to more positive attitudes towards the pay distribution process. Study II examined factors potentially associated with pay-related justice perceptions. The results demonstrated that perceptions of having sufficient feedback, proper information on pay criteria, gender equality, and lower workloads were connected with more favorable views of pay justice. Pay justice perceptions, in turn, appeared only to be marginally connected with employees’ work-related attitudes and behavior. Study III investigated whether women’s and men’s perceptions of the individualized pay-setting process differed. The results showed that both genders had a similar awareness of the organizational policies and goals. The women, however, reported much lower levels of pay-related gender equality than the men and perceived that men, overall, benefited more from individualized pay setting. In conclusion, employees’ perceptions of a well-functioning working climate, apparent links between work effort and pay, as well as perceived equal opportunities contribute to individualized pay systems being viewed as more fair.

Den sociala ångesten många känner i olika situationer kan leda till undvikande, isolering och ibland även kompliceras av depressiva symtom och/eller alkoholanvändning. Huruvida ett samband mellan dessa problem kan visa sig i 16-17 årsåldern undersöktes genom en enkät om nedstämdhet, alkoholanvändning och social ångest. Resultatet visade att nedstämdhet hade en inverkan på grad av social ångest hos båda könen. Dock var tjejer i högre grad än killar mer nedstämda. Tjejer som drack mindre uppvisade en högre grad av social ångest. Alkoholanvändning hängde inte ihop med killars hantering av social ångest. Resultatet tyder på att samband mellan variablerna kan visa sig tidigt. Därför borde resurser sättas in tidigt för att förhindra en negativ utveckling, så att personer kan fungera i samhället. / The social anxiety many people feel in different situations can lead to avoidance, isolation and be complicated with depressive symptoms and/or alcoholuse. Whether it’s possible to find relationships between these syndromes in age 16-17 was investigated through a survey about depression, alcoholuse and social anxiety. The result showed that depression had an impact on level of social anxiety for both sexes. Gals were more depressed than guys, though. Gals who drank less had a higher level of social anxiety. Alcoholuse had no impact in coping with social anxiety for guys. The result showes a connection between the variables that can be seen early. Therefore, resources should be available to prevent a negative development, so that people can function in society.

Syftet med denna studie har varit att undersöka hur kvinnors träning formas i olika gymmiljöer i och med den ökade trenden bland kvinnor att träna på kvinnogym. För att undersöka detta har vi i denna studie använt symbolisk interaktionism som teoretisk referensram. Detta då teorin problematiserar det förgivettagna, vilket könsskillnader ofta betraktas som. Datainsamlingen skedde genom deltagande observationer på två unisexgym och ett kvinnogym. Resultatet visade att kvinnors tränande tycktes begränsas i båda miljöformerna genom gymmens inramning som tycks spegla rådande samhälleliga ideal. Detta visade sig tydligast på kvinnogymmet samtidigt som det är viktigt att notera att denna institution tycks utgöra en motreaktion på problem i unisexgyms manliga kultur. Vår slutsats är att unisexgymmen inrymmer begränsningar för kvinnors tränande men att en könsseparation i detta fall tycks avgränsa kvinnors möjlighet till idealbrytande och istället reproducera problematiken. / The aim of this study was to examine how women’s exercising is formed in different types of gym settings due to the increasing popularity of women only gyms. The study used symbolic interactionism as theoretic reference since it problematizes the taken for granted, a common view when it comes to gender differences. Participating observation was used to gather data at two unisex gyms and one women only gym. The result showed that women’s exercising was restrained in both settings due to their framing which appeared to reflect social ideals. This was most obvious at the women only gym though it is important to note that this institution seems to represent a counter reaction against the male culture at unisex gyms. The conclusion is that unisex gyms pose obstacles for women’s exercising, however, an alternative that provides gender segregation in this case seems to delimit women’s opportunity to diverge ideals and thus seems to reproduce the problem.

The use of Curriculum-Based Measurement (CBM) in schools is increasing, as it is a useful indicator of students’ basic academic skills. CBM measures are often used for identifying students at-risk, monitoring their progress during interventions, and even making special education eligibility determinations. Much of the research has focused on CBM in the area of reading. Relatively few studies have examined the area of CBM-Written Expression. A couple of studies indicated there are gender differences on CBM-Written Expression measures. This study sought to determine if gender differences exist at the elementary level and, if so, at what grade level such differences appear. This study investigated the differences between boys and girls on three CBM-Written Expression production-dependent scores (i.e., Total Words Written, Words Spelled Correctly, and Correct Word Sequence) across first through fifth grade levels. Statistically significant differences were found beginning in the first grade. However, effect sizes suggest practical differences do not occur until the second or third grade. The results indicate that schools using CBM-Written Expression data should develop genderspecific norms.

Background: The incidence of anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) –injury is 3-5 times greater in female athletes compared to male athletes. This may be partially attributed to lower levels of hamstring-quadriceps co-contraction in females with subsequent knee kinematics that increases risk of ACL-injury. Finding training methods that improves co-contraction and increases knee stability is important. Objectives: To evaluate the effects of a new device on hamstring-quadriceps co-contraction and to investigate if training with the device can alter knee kinematics in female athletes. Study design: Controlled experimental study design with repeated measures. Method: Twenty soccer and floor ball athletes were measured with electromyography (EMG) for hamstring-quadriceps co-contraction while performing squats with and without the device. Thirteen athletes also underwent three-dimensional kinematic analyses, measuring knee abduction angles (at initial ground contact and peak angle) during a drop jump, before and after a six week intervention period with the device. Friedman’s test and Wilcoxon signed rank test was used to assess differences and effect sizes (ES) were calculated. Results: Co-contraction was consistently larger on the device (medial side: p<0.001, ES=0.88; lateral side: p<0.001, ES=0.80) and the ratio of medial-to-lateral co-contraction increased (p=0.001, ES=0.79). In the kinematic analysis low adherence rates amongst our subjects meant that the effects of the device on kinematics could not be measured. Conclusion: Performing squats with the new training device stimulates increased hamstring-quadriceps co-contraction and increases the ratio of medial-to-lateral co-contraction. The effects of the device on knee kinematics have yet to be determined.

Många drabbas av social ångest. Vikt och kroppsuppfattning relaterar till social ångest men sambandet behöver tydliggöras. Syftet med studien var att se hur mycket av variationen i social ångest över tid som kan förklaras av vikt-, och kroppsrelaterade mått, samt undersöka könsskillnader. Studien var longitudinell och baserades på en enkätundersökning vid två insamlingstillfällen med ett års mellanrum (N=361). Resultatet visade att upplevd övervikt, felaktigt upplevd övervikt, kön och kroppsnöjdhet tillsammans förklarade 7 % av variationen i social ångest över tid. Tjejer som var missnöjda med sina kroppar löpte ökad risk att rapportera högre grad av social ångest vid tidpunkt 2. Slutsatsen är att tjejer och killar har olika relation till sina kroppar vilket bör beaktas vid behandling och prevention. / Many people suffer from social anxiety. There is a relationship between weight and body perception connected to social anxiety but the link needs to be sorted out. The aim with our study was to clarify to what extent social anxiety is due to weight and body related concerns and to examine gender differences. The study was longitudinal and based on a survey performed at two occasions with one year interval (N=361). The result showed that perceived overweight, incorrectly perceived overweight, gender and body satisfaction predicts 7 % of the variety in social anxiety one year ahead. Girls who were dissatisfied with their bodies ran an increased risk reporting a higher level of social anxiety at the second occasion. Conclusively, as girls' and boys' relationships with their bodies differ, this findings should be considered in treatments and preventive programs.

Omega-3 fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicospentaenoic acid (EPA), are important mediators for cardiovascular disease, fetal/infant development, neurological disorders and inflammatory diseases. Supplementation and washout studies are important for future research on the physiological effects of omega-3 fatty acids and for determination of the proper washout period for future cross-over studies. In this study, omega-3 fatty acid blood biomarker comparisons are made for the n-3 HUFA score (% of n-3 HUFAs in total HUFAs) and omega-3 index (sum of EPA + DHA) in plasma, erythrocytes, whole blood and a novel finger-tip prick blood method (FTPB) of analysis. This FTPB method of fatty acid analysis is further tested to determine the potential for its use in fatty acid analysis. In addition, gender differences in response to omega-3 fish oil supplementation are analyzed in all four blood fractions. Nine males and seven females were supplemented with 8 fish-oil capsules per day (providing 3.2 g/day EPA and 1.6 g/day DHA) for four weeks, followed by an eight-week omega-3 washout period. Venous plasma, erythrocyte and whole blood samples were collected during weeks 0, 4, 8 and 12 and FTPB samples were collected weekly during supplementation and washout fatty acid analysis was performed. EPA and DHA incorporation is lowest in magnitude in erythrocytes relative to all other blood fractions. Omega-3 blood biomarker comparisons demonstrate that the n-3 HUFA score is a more reliable measure across all blood fractions compared to the omega-3 index. In addition, the n-3 HUFA score demonstrates no differences (p > 0.05) between FTPB and whole blood analysis, providing evidence to support its usefulness as a tool for fatty acid analysis. However, differences (p < 0.05) do exist between these methods for saturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acids, omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and omega-3 PUFAs. Baseline fatty acid levels for DHA, and the DHA:EPA and DHA:DPA ratios tend to be higher (p < 0.05) in females, and docosapentaenoic acid n-3 (DPAn-3) is higher (p > 0.05) in males across all blood fractions. Furthermore, a gender effect (p < 0.05) is seen for the DHA:EPA ratio across all blood fractions. At baseline, female DHA:EPA is higher (p < 0.05) than males with supplementation lowering both male and female values and removing any differences (p > 0.05) between genders. Washout results in a return of levels towards baseline, however, baseline levels are not fully reached. Furthermore, while gender differences do begin to reform during washout, these differences are not significant (p > 0.05). In conclusion, omega-3 fatty acid responses, particularly DHA:EPA ratio, demonstrate significant gender differences that may be related to differences in long-chain PUFA synthesis pathways between males and females. In addition, the n-3 HUFA score may be a more valuable omega-3 blood biomarker than the omega-3 index, as the n-3 HUFA score displays more consistent levels across all blood fractions. Finally, the FTPB method of analysis may be a useful tool in the measurement of fatty acid composition, however, some microwave methylation problems do exist, specifically in the phospholipid class of lipids.

Kunskap om ungdomars alkohol- och drogvanor är en viktig aspekt i förhållande till socialt arbete. Kunskaperna kan bidra till verktyg för att kunna göra rätt bedömningar och insatser. Med detta som utgångspunkt har denna studie utförts med syftet att undersöka uppfattningar om alkohol och droger hos ungdomar mellan 13-15 år. Studien är utförd med en kvantitativ ansats. Ett utskick av 164 enkäter gick ut till högstadieelever på en skola i Mellansverige. Studien bygger bland annat på faktorer som könskillnader, debutålder, hur och var eleverna får tag på alkohol och droger samt om det finns samband mellan dessa. De signifikanta resultaten från studien har visat att ungdomar med högre konsumtion av alkohol eller en allt lägre debutålder för alkoholdrickande löper en högre risk för att testa droger än de ungdomarna med en högre ålder för alkohol debut och en lägre konsumtion av alkohol. Studien visade också att ungdomar som får alkohol utköpt av någon i hemmet löper en högre risk för att ha en intensivkonsumtion av alkohol jämfört med ungdomar som ej fick alkoholen utköpt av någon i hemmet. Resultaten har sedan jämförts med tidigare nationell- och internationell forskning. Gällande könskillnader visade resultaten visade bland annat att pojkarna i studien hade en lägre debutålder för alkohol än flickorna. / Knowledge of youth alcohol and drug habits is an important aspect in relation to social work. Knowledge can contribute to the tools to make the right judgments and actions. With this in mind, this study has been performed with the intent to investigate the perceptions of alcohol and drugs among young people aged 13-15 years. The study was conducted with a quantitative approach and was distributed to 164 to students at a school in the middle of Sweden. The study is based on factors such as gender differences, onset/debut age, how and where students get hands on alcohol and drugs, and if there were a correlation between them. The significant findings of the study has shown the link between young people with higher consumption of alcohol or a lower onset age of alcohol drinking are at higher risk for testing drugs and showed that young people who get alcohol out bought by someone in the home are at higher risk of having a binge of alcohol. The results were then compared with previous national and international research. Concerning gender differences the results showed that the attending boys in the study had a lower debut age of alcohol drinking compared to the girls.

Omega-3 fatty acids, particularly docosahexaenoic (DHA) and eicospentaenoic acid (EPA), are important mediators for cardiovascular disease, fetal/infant development, neurological disorders and inflammatory diseases. Supplementation and washout studies are important for future research on the physiological effects of omega-3 fatty acids and for determination of the proper washout period for future cross-over studies. In this study, omega-3 fatty acid blood biomarker comparisons are made for the n-3 HUFA score (% of n-3 HUFAs in total HUFAs) and omega-3 index (sum of EPA + DHA) in plasma, erythrocytes, whole blood and a novel finger-tip prick blood method (FTPB) of analysis. This FTPB method of fatty acid analysis is further tested to determine the potential for its use in fatty acid analysis. In addition, gender differences in response to omega-3 fish oil supplementation are analyzed in all four blood fractions. Nine males and seven females were supplemented with 8 fish-oil capsules per day (providing 3.2 g/day EPA and 1.6 g/day DHA) for four weeks, followed by an eight-week omega-3 washout period. Venous plasma, erythrocyte and whole blood samples were collected during weeks 0, 4, 8 and 12 and FTPB samples were collected weekly during supplementation and washout fatty acid analysis was performed. EPA and DHA incorporation is lowest in magnitude in erythrocytes relative to all other blood fractions. Omega-3 blood biomarker comparisons demonstrate that the n-3 HUFA score is a more reliable measure across all blood fractions compared to the omega-3 index. In addition, the n-3 HUFA score demonstrates no differences (p > 0.05) between FTPB and whole blood analysis, providing evidence to support its usefulness as a tool for fatty acid analysis. However, differences (p < 0.05) do exist between these methods for saturated fatty acid, monounsaturated fatty acids, omega-6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and omega-3 PUFAs. Baseline fatty acid levels for DHA, and the DHA:EPA and DHA:DPA ratios tend to be higher (p < 0.05) in females, and docosapentaenoic acid n-3 (DPAn-3) is higher (p > 0.05) in males across all blood fractions. Furthermore, a gender effect (p < 0.05) is seen for the DHA:EPA ratio across all blood fractions. At baseline, female DHA:EPA is higher (p < 0.05) than males with supplementation lowering both male and female values and removing any differences (p > 0.05) between genders. Washout results in a return of levels towards baseline, however, baseline levels are not fully reached. Furthermore, while gender differences do begin to reform during washout, these differences are not significant (p > 0.05). In conclusion, omega-3 fatty acid responses, particularly DHA:EPA ratio, demonstrate significant gender differences that may be related to differences in long-chain PUFA synthesis pathways between males and females. In addition, the n-3 HUFA score may be a more valuable omega-3 blood biomarker than the omega-3 index, as the n-3 HUFA score displays more consistent levels across all blood fractions. Finally, the FTPB method of analysis may be a useful tool in the measurement of fatty acid composition, however, some microwave methylation problems do exist, specifically in the phospholipid class of lipids.