Intergroup reconciliation involves a holistic change in attitudes and interactions between groups. However, sustainable reconciliation has often times been overlooked from previous research. This paper aims to contribute to the research gap by applying the well-tested contact hypothesis in the context of NGO structure. The positive results in change of reconciliation attitudes suggests thereby that NGOs should not only be evaluated by its external effects but also by its internal effects on its own members. No negative consequences could be found. Combining intergroup contact with youth, providing informal education and combining it with inter-faith projects within a faith-based institution have yielded the best results.

The unifying theme of the chapters presented in this thesis is that intra-group interaction impacts on in-group identity content, and this content provides a foundation for social action and social behaviour. The primary goals of this thesis are first, to demonstrate that social realities can be established and transformed through interaction; and second, to investigate why the process of intra-group interaction can spark and exacerbate social conflict. In Chapter 1, I review and attempt to theoretically integrate the disparate literatures on group discussion, identity and action. In Chapter 2, I investigate the effect of interaction on the positive-negative asymmetry effect (PNAE). In Study 2.1, participants were more likely to discriminate on rewards than fines, and find allocating rewards to be a more legitimate and pleasant act than allocating fines. Conversely, participants thought allocating fines would have a more negative effect on recipients and felt more negative about allocating fines than rewards. In Study 2.2, when in-group advancement was obstructed, no PNAE was found: obstruction was sufficient justification for out-group punishment in its own right. When in-group advancement was not obstructed, the PNAE reversed after group discussion, such that more hostility occurred when participants administered fines than when they awarded rewards. This reversal was mediated by processes of norm formation. In Chapter 3, I describe three studies which show that consensual intra-group discussions about a negatively regarded out-group increased inter-group hostility. Study 3.1 compared group discussion about immigrants with individual reflection. Results showed that group discussion informed the content of stereotypes, which led to support for anti-immigrant policies. In Study 3.2, participants discussed either an irrelevant topic, the out-group stereotype, or the out-group stereotype plus what concrete actions should be taken towards that group. Only discussion of the stereotype significantly increased hostility, suggesting that the psychological products of discussion per se (cohesion, identification, etc.) are not solely responsible for hostility. Rather, social validation of the stereotype explained why its discussion increased hostility. Study 3.3 replicated these results with a behavioural measure. In Chapter 4, I present two studies which controlled for the content of interaction by showing participants short films of similar others having a group discussion. Study 4.1 investigated the paradoxical finding that when groups discuss potential courses of action against an out-group, they are less likely to act than when they discuss simply the out-group stereotype (Chapter 3). Results suggested that when group discussions imply that there is social consensus about a course of action, even the advocacy of extreme actions can increase support for (more moderate) social action. Study 4.2 manipulated whether or not the discussants consensualised on the out-group stereotype, whilst controlling for discussion content. Only when the discussion ended in consensus did participants identify with the discussants and perceive norms for social action. In Chapter 5, I address how social identities and their associated (self-) stereotypes can disadvantage members of low status groups, but how they can also promote social change. The data demonstrates that consensualisation in small groups can transform (or reconfirm) such stereotypes, thereby eliminating (or bolstering) stereotype threat effects. In Study 5.1, female participants were asked why men are (or are not) better at maths. They generated their answers individually or through group discussion. Stereotype threat was undermined only when they collectively challenged the stereotype. Content analyses suggest that discussions redefined in-group and out-group stereotypes, providing the basis for stigma reversal or confirmation. In Study 5.2, male and female participants confirmed or challenged the stereotype in same-gender discussion groups or no discussion, baseline conditions. After a discussion that confirmed the stereotype, women displayed signs of stereotype threat and men’s performance was “lifted”. When they challenged the stereotype, the difference between men and women on the maths test was eliminated. Overall, the results reported in this thesis suggest that intra-group interaction enables group members to develop an understanding of their common ideology, which may establish the consensual basis of their identity content. If such consensualisation occurs, this provides them with a sense that their perceptions of reality are socially valid, and gives rise to (implicit or explicit) in-group norms. This provides individuals with a solid foundation upon which they may act. The implications of these conclusions are discussed in Chapter 6.

Encounters  and  relations  between  people  with  different  cultural  backgrounds  tend  to  be  primarily  discussed  in  terms  of  exclusio,  prejudice  and  conflict.  This  thesis  focuses  on  the  creative  aspects  of  intercultural  encounters.  The  starting  point  is  that  the  parties  involved  sometimes  succeed  in  avoiding  the  latent  conflicts  between  cultures  by  acting  trategically.  The  aim  of  this  thesis  is  to  increase  understanding  of  the  possibilities  represented  by  intercultural  encounters  and  to  identiy  the  strategies  employed  by  the  actors  who  try  to  deal  with  the  contrasts  and  dilemmas  involved  in  encounters  with  other  peopl  with  different  cultural  experiences,  identities  and  methods.  The  empirical  part  of  the  thesis  is  based  on  four  qualitative  case  studies  that  are  characterised  by  rather  positive  co‐operation  between  the  actors  in  the  intercultural  encounter,  i.e.  "immigrants"  and  the  majority  society  in  Sweden.  The  empirical  data  are  based  on  45  individual  interviews,  two  focus  group  discussions  and  a  number  of  minor  observations  made  in  the  inland  part  of  northern  Sweden,  where  the  case  studies  were  carried  out.  The  principal  result  of  this  research  is  that  the  actors  begin  to  see  culture  as  a  possibility  when  they  find  themselves  in  a  osition  where  they  feel  obliged  to  change  their  established  patterns  of  behaviour,  due  to  some  sort  of  crisis  situation.  The  strategies  used  by  the  actors  to  deal  with  culture  conflicts  can  be  divided  into  intra‐group  strategies  and  inter‐group  strategies.  The  former  attempt  to  achieve  relative  homogeneity  between  the  competing  groups  in  the  field  of  the  intercultural  encounter,  while  the  latter  illustrate  how  the  participants  deal  with  what  they  experience  as  differences.  Four  inter‐group  strategies  have  been  identified:  1)  the  status  quo  strategy,  2)  the  loose  coupling  strategy,  3)  the  selective  strategy  and  4)  a  culture  mixing  strategy.  The  latter  three  are  characterised  by  innovative  combinations  that  organise  the  existing  cultural  elements  in  a  meaningful  way  These  strategies  result  in  new  cognitive  structures,  whose  limits  maintain  the  balance  between  different  cultural  elements. / Möten och  relationer  bland  människor  med  olika  kulturell  bakgrund  diskuteras  idag  övervägande  i  termer  av  social  och  kulturell  exkludering,  fördomar  och  motsättningar.  I  denna  avhandling  har  jag  valt  att  fokusera  på  kulturmötens  kreativa  aspekter.  Min  utgångspunkt  är  att  deltagande  parter  i  vissa  fall  lyckas  att  kringgå  kulturmötenas  inneboende  motsättningar  och  överbrygg  det  kulturella  avståndet  genom  att  handla  strategiskt.  Syftet  med  avhandlingen  har  varit  att  öka  förståelsen  av  kulturmötens  möjligheter  och  att  identifiera  aktörernas  handlingsmönser  när  de  försöker  hantera  kontraster  och  dilemman  i  möten  med  människor  som  skiljer  sig  i  fråga  om  kulturella  erfarenheter,  identiteter  och  metoder.  Hur  handlingarna  organiseras  för  att  förmå  människor  att  gemensamt  fungera  under  kulturmötenas  villkor,  är  frågan  vars  svar  förväntas  förtydliga  hur  den  kreativa  potentialen  i  kulturmöten  kan  tillvaratas.  Utformning  av  aktuella  handlingsstrategier  och  deras  effekter  analyseras  i  termer  av  motsvarande  kognitiva  strukturer.  Dessa  ställs  mot  varandra  och  analyseras  i  ett  kognitivt  sociologiskt  perspektiv.  Avhandlingens  empiriska  del  grundas  på  fyra  kvalitativa  fallstudier.  Bedömningsgrunder  för  urvalet  av  dessa  fall  har  varit  att  det  skulle  röra  sig  om  händelser  eller  projekt  som  äger  rum  i  glesbyden  och  som  inkluderar  en  någorlunda  affirmativ  bild  av  samverkan  mellan  aktörer  från  olika  kulturell  bakgrund.  Ett  av  de  studerade  fallen  har  exemplifierat  en  icke‐affirmativ  bild  av  samverkan  för  att  kontrastera  de  övriga  fallen.  Empiriska  data  har  insamlats  genom  totalt  45  individuella  intervjuer,  två  fokusgruppsdiskussioner  samt  några  mindre  observationer.  Avhandlingens  huvudresultat  är  att  aktörerna  uppfattar  kultur  som  en  möjlighet  först  när  behovet  att  förändra  etablerade  beteenemönster  upplevs  som  nödvändigt  på  grund  av  krisförhållanden.  I  den  meningen  kan  kris  och  instabilitet  ses  som  en  förutsättning  för  att  kulturmötens  kreativa  möjligheter  ska  kunna  tillvaraas.  Handlingsstrategier  som  aktörerna  använt  för  att  hantera  kulturella  motsättningar  kan  uppdelas  i  inomgruppsstrategier  och  mellngruppsstrategier.  De  förstnämnda  syftar  till  att  uppnå  en  relativ  homogenisering  bland  de  konkurrerande  grupperna  inom  de  fält  som  ingår  i  kultumöten,  medan  de  sistnämnda  åskådliggör  hur  deltagarna  går  tillväga  för  att  hantera  uppfattade  olikheter.  Jag  har  identifierat  fyra  mellangruppstrategier:  1)  status  quo‐strategi,  2)  frikopplingsstrategi,  3)  selektiv  strategi  och  4)  kulturblandningsstrategi.  De  tre  sistnämnda  kännetecknas  av  innovativa  sammanställningar  som  organiserar  befintliga  kulturella  element  på  ett  meningsfult  sätt.  Effekter  av  dessa  strategier  resulterar  i  nya  kognitiva  strukturer,  vars  gränsdragningar  bevarar  en  balansgång  mellan  olika  kulturella  element.

South Africa is a melting pot and a meeting place for a multitude of "races", representing an optimal arena for understanding the psychology of contact and desegregation. This study focuses on the spatial arrangement of minority identities, through continued informal segregation, among the Indian minority of Mokopane. Drawing on 28 open-ended interviews, segregation is explored in everyday interactions and spaces. Working within a spatial-discursive framework, critical discourse analysis is employed, paired with a basic observational and descriptive analysis. Participants' discursive constructions overwhelmingly demonstrate patterns of informal segregation among the Indian minority community, within the micro-ecology of contact. Caught within a sandwiched or "buffer" identity, issues of space constantly inform negotiating conceptions of "Indianness". In mapping the dialogue of the Indian community, a story of the evolution of segregation emerges, creating a replication of internal divisions. This study ultimately demonstrates the need for a spatial-discursive orientation and a more "embodied" turn in our understanding of segregation.

This thesis examines the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on racist and xenophobic hate crimes. I argue that perceived threat and strain generated by the pandemic trigger negative emotions such as fear, frustration and anger. These negative emotions are directed to the group that is blamed in public discourse for the cause and/or spread of the Coronavirus. As a result, I argue that these hostile attitudes are expressed through racist and xenophobic hate crimes. Drawing on this proposed causal mechanism, the hypothesis the COVID-19 pandemic caused an increase in the number of racist and xenophobic hate crimes is developed. The hypothesis is tested by examining a period of 11 months before and 11 months during the pandemic by conducting an Interrupted Time Series Analysis (ITSA). The results show that the hate crime trend changed from a small decreasing trend before the pandemic to a less decreasing trend during the pandemic, yet the results are not significant. Thus, the results do not support the hypothesis. Concerns regarding the sample selection and theoretical limitations are expressedand open up avenues for future research.

This study was designed to assess a PWIs residential life department's initiative to provide their Resident Assistants (RAs) an opportunity to discuss race through an inter-group dialogue session. I argue that any activity that focuses on race needs to be grounded in a social justice framework. This is because this framework educates individuals about systematic social, political, and economic issues that plague our society. A social justice grounding also fosters a disposition that desires to eliminate institutionalized discrimination. As such, this study sought to answer the following research questions: how did this inter-group dialogue impact the RAs ability to recognize race-related issues in the United States and did this inter-group dialogue foster a social justice perspective among the RAs that participated? Through a content analysis of ten in-depth, semi-structured interviews with RAs who participated in the dialogue the findings suggest that RAs did gain an understanding of how different lived experiences effect how someone views societal race issues, but the inter-group dialogue did not foster a transformative perspective among RAs that were not already grounded in social justice. Recommendations to improve future sessions are provided. / African American Studies

Inter-group social trust is one of the main elements for peacebuilding and, as a common feature of civil wars, Forced Internal Displacement is creating further complexities and challenges for post-war inter-group social trust. However, research revealed that among the internally displaced people, some tend to have a higher level of post-war inter-group trust compared to the other IDP. Surprisingly, an analysis based on this topic revealed that only a small number of studies are focusing on the condition of Internally Displaced People’s post-war intergroup social trust in the long run. This study examines the inter-group social trust of internally displaced people to provide a theoretical explanation for the following question; under what conditions the internally displaced people tend to trust more/less the conflicting party in the post-war context? With an examination of the social psychology research, this thesis argues that under the condition of postwar the IDP who have experienced continuous pre-war inter-group contact the post-war intergroup social trust will be stronger than the IDP who do not have such inter-group contact experience. The reason behind this expectation is the expected effect of inter-group contact on eliminating the prejudices and promoting the ‘collective knowledge’ regarding the war and displacement, thus promoting inter-group trust. This research is collected data from two groups of internally displaced people of Cyprus; IDP displaced from heterogeneous areas and homogenous areas, using the method of qualitative single case analysis. The findings show strong support for the expected causal relationship.

På senare tid har de uppmärksammade härjningarna och våldsamma metoderna som används av Islamiska Staten i Irak och Syrien (ISIS) bidragit till en ökad oro och diskussion om vad som får muslimska ungdomar ifrån väst att ansluta sig till sådana hänsynslösa organisationer. Mot bakgrund av detta ville jag undersöka vilka tankar och antaganden som konstruerar en muslimsk ungdoms världsbild avseende identitet och tillhörighet. Denna studie syftar därför till att uppnå ökad förståelse för hur fenomenet radikalisering kan relateras till identitetsskapande hos muslimska ungdomar och vilka processer i identitetsskapandet som kan utgöra en risk för vägen mot radikalisering. För att lyckas med detta har jag utfört semistrukturerade utforskande djupintervjuer med muslimska ungdomar i Malmö. Min avsikt med denna studie har inte varit att utgå från att alla muslimska ungdomar är, eller har potential för att bli radikaliserade. Min avsikt har snarare varit att utforska hur identitet och tillhörighet kan säga något om vägar (pathways) till radikalisering oavsett av religiös tillhörighet. För att analysera informanternas berättelser har begrepp och ramverk från Social identitetsteori använts. Studien påvisar en stabil grund för bi-kulturell identifiering med en svensk och en muslimsk kontext bland ungdomarna som ingått i denna studie. Samtidigt går det att spåra en kluvenhet i att på grund av sin religiösa identitet inte alltid accepteras fullt ut i alla sammanhang och en känsla av medialt utpekande av muslimer som grupp. Informanternas berättelser synliggör också en upplevd intern konflikt bland muslimska samfund då terrorism som utförs i islams namn tvingar medlemmar i gruppen att både internt och externt markera ställningstagande i frågan om religiöst motiverat våld och terrorism. Denna konflikt i kombination med ett upplevt utanförskap som svensk muslim kan i sig vara grunden för att vissa ungdomar vänder sig in i andra delar av den muslimska gruppen för att söka acceptans och bekräftelse. I denna process finner en del av dessa ungdomar radikala och extrema rörelser. Dessa rörelser är isolerade från omvärldens intryck vilket möjliggör för extremism att gro. När medlemmar inom en sådan grupp vill öka sin status kan beteende och handlingar eskalera vilket kan leda till våld och terrorism. Ett sätt att förhindra denna väg mot radikalisering av unga muslimer skulle således kunna vara att skapa förutsättningar för muslimska ungdomar att kunna känna tillhörighet i sina olika sociala identiteter som både svensk och muslim. / As the brutality and violent means of the Islamic state in Iraq and Syria (ISIS) has become evident a general concern and public discussion has emerged about what makes young Muslims from the Western world to join such devious organizations. In light of this I wanted to examine the thoughts and assumptions that constructs the feelings of identity and belonging of young Muslims in the city of Malmo. This study thus aims to create a wider understanding of how the phenomenon of radicalization can be related to identities of Muslim youth and how the processes of forming identity can compose a risk for the individual to find pathways to radicalization. To accomplish this explorative semi-structured interviews with young Muslims in Malmo was conducted. My intention with this study has not been to assume that all Muslim youth is, or has the potential to become radicalized. My intention rather has been to explore how identity and belonging can tell something about routes (pathways) to radicalization regardless of religious affiliation. To analyze the stories of the young Muslims who participated in this study concepts and frameworks from Social Identity Theory has been applied. This study shows that among the young Muslims participating in this study there is a stable basis for a bi-cultural identification with both a Swedish and a Muslim context. It is though possible to trace some ambivalence in the bi-cultural identity of these individuals as their experience as being Muslims e.g. their religious identity are not always compatible or fully accepted in all contexts. Additionally the participants also perceive that Muslims as a group is being publicly singled out and criticized by media. The stories also reveals a perceived internal conflict among Muslim communities as terrorism conducted in the name of Islam compels members of the Muslim group to both internally and externally mark position concerning religiously motived violence and terrorism. This conflict joint with the experience of exclusion among Swedish Muslim can potentially become the reason for some young Muslims to turn into the wide range of Muslim communities in search for acceptance and affirmation. In this process some individuals will find radical and extremist movements. The isolation these movements/groups experience from outside impressions then enables extremism to flourish inside the group. When members of such a group strives to improve individual status the behavior and actions of the group can escalate which in turn can result in violence and terrorism. Thus to avoid this pathway to radicalization the solution lies in creating conditions that allows for young Muslims to feel belonging and inclusion in their bi-cultural identities as being both Swedish and Muslims.

This current study investigated a possible extension to existing transformational leadership models used during organisational change programs. Researching the literature provided some preliminary evidence there was a need to include a potential extension to transformational leadership models. The original models of transformational leadership involved looking at the staff members from an organisational perspective, whereas the potential extension, concerns the human aspects of organisational change. The potential new extension consists of four components: communication, team building, stress and coping and inter-group conflict. This possible extension to the transformational leadership models appeared to be an exciting addition as it addresses important human resource issues experienced during organisational change. The present study sought to further investigate whether these four components indeed were warranted and whether its components actually contributed to successful organisational change. The research methodology was exploratory, qualitative and based on a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss 1967). Using an embedded case study method, in-depth convergent interviews were undertaken in four hospitals undergoing considerable organisational change. Twenty-six managers, executives and staff were interviewed. It was found that the change managers themselves were enthusiastic about implementing change but were unable to offer effective support for staff. Staff and managers said that communication within the hospitals during the period of change was poor. Similarly there was a paucity of accurate information being disseminated. Managers and staff also revealed that they had experienced considerable stress during the period of change and they needed help in order to cope effectively. Varying levels of inter-group conflict were reported in all the hospitals studied and managers reported that changes were not being implemented appropriately. However, efforts at team building were non-existent in two of the hospitals studied. These findings provide strong support for managers and leaders to pay increased attention to communication, team building, dealing with conflict and managing stress during times of increased change. This study suggests that a potential extension of the four components could be added to, and thereby strengthen, the transformational leadership models of organisational change.

This current study investigated a possible extension to existing transformational leadership models used during organisational change programs. Researching the literature provided some preliminary evidence there was a need to include a potential extension to transformational leadership models. The original models of transformational leadership involved looking at the staff members from an organisational perspective, whereas the potential extension, concerns the human aspects of organisational change. The potential new extension consists of four components: communication, team building, stress and coping and inter-group conflict. This possible extension to the transformational leadership models appeared to be an exciting addition as it addresses important human resource issues experienced during organisational change. The present study sought to further investigate whether these four components indeed were warranted and whether its components actually contributed to successful organisational change. The research methodology was exploratory, qualitative and based on a grounded theory approach (Glaser & Strauss 1967). Using an embedded case study method, in-depth convergent interviews were undertaken in four hospitals undergoing considerable organisational change. Twenty-six managers, executives and staff were interviewed. It was found that the change managers themselves were enthusiastic about implementing change but were unable to offer effective support for staff. Staff and managers said that communication within the hospitals during the period of change was poor. Similarly there was a paucity of accurate information being disseminated. Managers and staff also revealed that they had experienced considerable stress during the period of change and they needed help in order to cope effectively. Varying levels of inter-group conflict were reported in all the hospitals studied and managers reported that changes were not being implemented appropriately. However, efforts at team building were non-existent in two of the hospitals studied. These findings provide strong support for managers and leaders to pay increased attention to communication, team building, dealing with conflict and managing stress during times of increased change. This study suggests that a potential extension of the four components could be added to, and thereby strengthen, the transformational leadership models of organisational change.