Thesis (MComm)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: It is the role of the Industrial Psychologist and the Human Resources function within a company to contribute positively to an organisation’s competitive advantage. Human capital should be viewed and managed as a critical success factor within this context. The probability of attaining success over competitors could be addressed through focussing on the impact of employee performance on competitive advantage. With reference to the organisational life cycle, the e-commerce industry in South Africa seems to be in its infancy. It is in this stage when attaining high levels of performance from employees is of critical importance. In this lies the key for building and growing a competitive advantage that would set one organisation apart from the other – where one organisation would survive the infancy stage and another would drown in the quest to match the demands posed by the relevant industry and its customers. There is minimal Industrial or Organisational Psychology research that has tested hypotheses in the e-commerce industry. This contributed to the decision to implement this research in the e-commerce industry. The e-commerce industry is growing rapidly, and performance therefore is a key factor for success in any e-commerce company in South Africa. The focus of this study was to review the Job Demands Resources model (JD-R model) within the e-commerce retail industry in South Africa in order to add to the knowledge base regarding human behaviour at work, with specific reference to engagement, burnout and performance. The research question of the study was formulated regarding which “state of wellbeing” would increase performance. The JD-R model makes provision for evaluating this question in a structured manner. The JD-R model indicates that performance is influenced by work engagement/burnout (wellbeing). It also indicates that there are certain job demands, job resources and personal resources that will influence wellbeing. The study was facilitated through the use of an ex post facto correlational research design. A sample of 117 workers was chosen from the e-commerce retail industry to participate in the study. Participation was voluntary, the data was collected specifically for the purpose of this study, and all responses were treated confidentially. The measurements that were used included key performance indicators (KPIs), the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), the Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (MBI-GS), the Job Characteristics Scale, and the HEXACO model. The literature review formed a logical argument that culminated in a theoretical Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za iii model as well as a set of hypotheses with reference to the various dimensions in the JD-R model. The results showed that: a) Engagement has a significant positive influence on performance. b) Job resources (advancement, personal growth and organisational support) have a significant positive influence on engagement. c) Job resources (advancement, personal growth and organisational support) have a significant negative influence on burnout. d) Personal resources (extraversion) have a significant negative influence on burnout. e) Personal resources (conscientiousness) have a significant positive influence on engagement. f) Personal resources (agreeableness) have a significant negative influence on burnout. The following hypotheses were not supported: a) Burnout has a significant negative influence on performance. b) Personal resources (extraversion) have a significant positive influence on engagement. c) Personal resources (emotionality) have a significant positive influence on engagement. d) Personal resources (emotionality) have a significant negative influence on burnout. e) Personal resources (conscientiousness) have a significant negative influence on burnout. f) Personal resources (agreeableness) have a significant positive influence on engagement. g) Job demands (job overload) have a significant negative influence on engagement. h) Job demands (job overload) have a significant positive influence on burnout. i) Job demands (job insecurity) have a significant negative influence on engagement. j) Job demands (job insecurity) have a significant positive influence on burnout. Attention was also paid to future research considerations, recommendations to the managers of employees and to the limitations of the study. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Dit is die rol van die Bedryfsielkundige en die Menslike Hulpbronne funksie in maatskappye om 'n positiewe bydrae tot 'n organisasie se mededingende voordeel te maak. Menslike kapitaal moet beskou en bestuur word as ‘n kritiese sukses faktor in hierdie konteks. Die waarskynlikheid om sukses bo die kompetisie te behaal kan aangespreek word deur om fokus te plaas op die impak wat werknemersprestasie het op mededingings voordeel. Met verwysing na die organisatoriese lewenssiklus blyk die e-handelbedryf in Suid-Afrika om in sy beginstadium te wees. Dit is in hierdie stadium waar die bereiking van hoë vlakke van prestasie van werknemers van kritieke belang is. Hierin lê die sleutel vir die vordering en groei van 'n mededingende voordeel van een maatskappy bo ‘n ander - waar die een organisasie die beginstadium sou oorleef en die ander onder die druk van die versoeke/eise van die betrokke bedryf en sy kliënte sou swyk. Daar is ‘n beperkte hoeveelheid navorsing wat gevind kon word in die veld van Bedryfsielkunde wat hipoteses in die e-handelbedryf toets. Hierdie bevinding het bygedra tot die besluit om hierdie navorsingstudie oor die e-handelbedryf voort te sit. Die e-handelbedryf toon vinnige groei, en prestasie is dus tans 'n belangrike faktor vir sukses in enige e-handelmaatskappy in Suid-Afrika. Die fokus van hierdie navorsingstudie was om die “Job Demands Resources model (JD-R model)” in die e-kleinhandelbedryf in Suid-Afrika toe te pas om sodoende by te dra tot die huidige kennis beskikbaar ten opsigte van menslike gedrag by die werk, met spesifieke verwysing na werksbegeestering, uitbranding en prestasie. Die navorsingsvraag van die navorsingstudie is geformuleer rondom die aanname dat die "toestand van welsyn" prestasievlakke sal verhoog. Die primêre doel van die navorsingstudie was om deur middel van die toepassing van die JD-R model in die e-kleinhandelbedryf, by te dra tot die beskikbare kennis ten opsigte van menslike gedrag by die werk, met spesifieke verwysing na werksbetrokkenheid, uitbranding en prestasie. Die JD-R model maak op 'n gestruktureerde wyse voorsiening vir die evaluering van hierdie verhoudings. Die JD-R model dui aan dat prestasie beïnvloed word deur werksbetrokkenheid/uitbranding (welsyn). Dit dui ook dat daar sekere werksvereistes, werkshulpbronne en persoonlike hulpbronne is wat welstand beïnvloed. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za v Die navorsingstudie is gefasiliteer deur die gebruik van 'n ex post facto korrelasie-ontwerp. 'n Steekproef van 117 werkers is uit die e-kleinhandelbedryf gekies om aan die studie deel te neem. Deelname was vrywillig, die data is spesifiek ingesamel vir die doel van hierdie navorsingstudie en alle data is as vertroulik hanteer. Die volgende metingsinstrumente is gebruik: kern prestasie aanwysers (KPA’s), die Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES), die Maslach Burnout Inventory – General Survey (MBI-GS), die Job Characteristics Scale, en die HEXACO model. Die literatuuroorsig vorm 'n logiese argument wat lei tot 'n teoretiese model, sowel as 'n stel hipoteses met verwysing na die verskillende dimensies soos gevind in die JD-R model. Die resultate toon: a) Werksbetrokkenheid het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op prestasie. b) Werkshulpbronne (bevordering, persoonlike groei en organisatoriese ondersteuning) het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op werksbetrokkenheid. c) Werkshulpbronne (bevordering, persoonlike groei en organisatoriese ondersteuning) het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op uitbranding. d) Persoonlike hulpbronne (ekstroversie) het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op uitbranding. e) Persoonlike hulpbronne (pligsgetrouheid) het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op werksbetrokkenheid. f) Persoonlike hulpbronne (eenstemmigheid) het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op uitbranding. Die volgende hipoteses was nie aanvaar nie: a) Uitbranding het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op prestasie. b) Persoonlike hulpbronne (ekstroversie) het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op werksbetrokkenheid. c) Persoonlike hulpbronne (emosionaliteit) het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op werksbetrokkenheid. d) Persoonlike hulpbronne (emosionaliteit) het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op uitbranding. e) Persoonlike hulpbronne (pligsgetrouheid) het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op uitbranding. f) Persoonlike hulpbronne (eenstemmigheid) het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op werksbetrokkenheid. Stellenbosch University https://scholar.sun.ac.za vi g) Werksvereistes (oorlading) het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op werksbetrokkenheid. h) Werksvereistes (oorlading) het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op uitbranding. i) Werksvereistes (werkonsekerheid) het ‘n beduidende negatiewe invloed op werksbetrokkenheid. j) Werksvereistes (werkonsekerheid) het ‘n beduidende positiewe invloed op uitbranding. Aandag is ook geskenk aan toekomstige navorsings oorwegings, aanbevelings aan die bestuurders van werknemers asook aan die beperkinge van die navorsinstudie.

Sur leur lieu de travail, les individus sont confrontés à de nombreuses difficultés. Souvent, ces difficultés sont engendrées par de mauvaises conditions de travail qui génèrent des phénomènes de risques psychosociaux (RPS), susceptibles de nuire à la santé des salariés. En Sciences de la Gestion, les RPS sont l’objet d’un intérêt croissant, car ils ont aussi un impact sur la performance et sur la pérennité de l’entreprise. Alors qu’il existe des politiques et des pratiques de gestion des ressource humaines (GRH) mises en place par les entreprises pour faire face à ces risques, une démarche efficace n’est pas encore aboutie. Or, selon le modèle exigences/ressources (Demerouti et al., 2001), il existe des conditions de travail favorables (ressources) qui ont le potentiel de réduire ces risques, et qui font l’objet de ces travaux de recherche. Plus précisément, cette thèse s’interroge sur les représentations des salarié/es quant aux ressources qui ont le plus de potentiel pour réduire les effets des conditions de travail nocives. En même temps, nous faisons l’hypothèse que ces ressources sont aussi capables d’influencer la pérennité de l’entreprise, via la fidélisation des salarié/es. Nous avons mené une étude de cas au sein d’un groupe de l’agro-alimentaire, qui contrôle deux implantations industrielles qui ont conservé leur culture d’entreprise d’avant la fusion dans ce groupe. Nos résultats montrent que les salariés identifient quatre ressources (autonomie au travail, variété des tâches, bon climat social et soutien des supérieurs) qui ont plus de potentiel que d’autres pour compenser les conditions de travail contraignantes, et que ces ressources sont largement citées quel que soit le genre, le poste occupé, et le site. Il apparaît que ces mêmes ressources sont aussi capables d’influencer l’intention de rester des salarié/es dans l’entreprise. Cependant, ce ne sont pas toujours les pratiques de GRH qui créent ces ressources, mais –d’après les représentations des salariés- plutôt des valeurs liées à la culture d’entreprise précédant la fusion. Au-delà de la contribution à la théorie Exigences/Ressources, nos travaux souhaitent aussi contribuer à la prise de conscience, par les managers, de l’intérêt de certaines ressources pour la mise en place de meilleures conditions de travail et l’amélioration des stratégies de pilotage de la pérennité. / At the workplace, individuals face many challenges. Usually these difficulties are caused by poor working conditions that generate the phenomena of psychosocial risks factors (PRF), which can harm the health of employees. In management sciences, an increasing interest has set to PRF, particularly because they also have an impact on the performance and on the longevity of the company. The human resource management (HRM) policies and practices are made by companies to deal with these risks, but an effective approach is not yet achieved. According to the job demands / resources model (Demerouti et al., 2001), there are better working conditions (resources) that have the potential to buffer demands which causes PRF. Resources are the subject of this thesis.Precisely, this thesis questions the employees’ representations resources that have the greatest potential to buffer harmful working conditions. At the same time, we make the assumption that these resources are also able to influence the longevity of the firm, through employee loyalty. We conducted a case study within an agri-food group, which controls two industrial establishments which inherited their organizational culture before joining this group. Our results show that employees identify four resources (autonomy at work, task variety, good social climate and superiors support) that have more potential than others to buffer dangerous working conditions. Moreover, these resources are equally quoted in relation to gender, occupation, and industrial site. Furthermore, it appears that the same resources are also able to influence employees intention to remain in the group. However, it is not always the HRM practices that create these resources, but rather the values that are linked to the firm culture, before the merger.Beyond the contribution to the job demands / resources model, our research also aims to contribute to the managers' awareness of the value of certain resources to implement better working conditions and management strategies of longevity.

The present study tested a nomological net of work engagement that was derived from its extant research. Two of the main work engagement models that have been presented and empirically tested in the literature, the JD-R model and Kahn’s model, were integrated to test the effects that job features and personal characteristics can have on work engagement through the psychological conditions of meaningfulness, safety, and availability. In this study, safety refers to psychological perceptions of safety and not workplace safety behaviors. The job features that were tested in this model included person-job fit, autonomy, co-worker relations, supervisor support, procedural justice, and interactional justice, while the personal characteristics consisted of self-consciousness, self-efficacy, extraversion, and neuroticism. Thirty-four hypotheses and a conceptual model were tested in order to establish the viability of this nomological net of work engagement in which it was expected that meaningfulness would mediate the relationships between job features and work engagement, safety would mediate the relationships that job features and personal characteristics have with work engagement, and availability (physical, emotional, and cognitive resources) would mediate the relationships that personal characteristics have with work engagement. Furthermore, analyses were run in order to determine the factor structure of work engagement, assess whether or not it exhibits differential validity from organizational commitment and job satisfaction, and confirm that it is positively related to the outcome variable of organizational citizenship behavior (OCB). The final sample consisted of 500 workers from an online labor market who responded to a questionnaire composed of measures of all constructs included in this study. Findings show that work engagement is best represented as a three-factor construct, composed of vigor, dedication and absorption. Furthermore, support was found for the distinction of work engagement from the related constructs of organizational commitment and job satisfaction. With regard to the proposed model, meaningfulness proved to be the strongest predictor of work engagement. Results show that it partially mediates the relationships that all job features have with work engagement. Safety proved to be a partial mediator of the relationships that autonomy, co-worker relations, supervisor support, procedural justice, interactional justice, and self-efficacy have with work engagement, and fully mediate the relationship between neuroticism and work engagement. Findings also show that availability partially mediates the positive relationships that extraversion and self-efficacy have with work engagement, and fully mediates the negative relationship that neuroticism has with work engagement. Finally, a positive relationship was found between work engagement and OCB. Research and organizational implications are discussed.

En tredjedel av världens kvinnor har blivit våldsutsatta och år 2022 blev tio personer mördade av sin partner i Sverige. Personal på kvinnojourer och skyddade boenden har en viktig roll att erbjuda skydd och stöd. Syftet med denna studie är att undersöka personalens upplevelser av krav, resurser och utomorganisatorisk samverkan i arbetet med de skyddsplacerade med Jobb-Krav-Resursmodellen som teoretiskt perspektiv. Elva semistrukturerade intervjuer tematiserades med personal från tre olika kvinnojourer och ett privatägt skyddat boende. Ur analysen framkom tio teman som besvarade frågeställningarna. Resultatet visade att personalen upplevde en tung arbetsbelastning med en mängd ovissa arbetsinsatser, ambivalenta skyddsplacerade och snäva tidsramar vilket gav känslor av frustration samt stress. Betydelsefulla arbetsresurser var kollegialt stöd, möjligheter till kompetensutveckling och god påverkan på arbetsplatsen. Samverkan var bristfällig med andra organisationer vilket upplevdes vara relaterat till bristande helhetssyn och okunskaper om våldets konsekvenser, vilket försvårade möjligheterna att hjälpa de skyddsplacerade att återuppbygga sina liv. / One-third of the world´s women have experienced violence, and in 2022, ten people were murdered by their partners in Sweden. Staff at women´s shelters and safe houses play a crucial role in providing protection and support. The purpose of this study is to examine the staff´s experiences of work demands, work resources and interorganizational collaboration in their work with the victims of intimate partner violence using Job-Demand-Resource Model as a theoretical perspective. Eleven semi-structured interviews were conducted with staff from three different women´s shelters and one privately owned safe house. From the analysis, ten themes emerged that addressed the two research questions. The resultats showed that the staff experienced a heavy workload with a multitude of uncertain tasks, ambivalent victims and tight time frames, leading to feelings of frustration and stress. Significant work resources included collegial support, opportunities for competence development, and positive workplace influence. Collaboration with other organizations was insufficient which was perceived to be related to a lack of holistic perspective and ignorance about the consequences of violence, making it difficult to assist the victims in rebuildning their lives.

I denna studie undersöks enskilda individers upplevelser av work-life balance somverkar inom en högpresterande organisation. Studien bygger på en kvalitativ metod därdatan analyseras genom en induktiv tematisk analys. Efter genomförandet avintervjuerna kunde man sammanställa fyra teman; prestationsbaserad lön, kontroll,ledarskap och arbetskultur. Resultatet visade att samtliga respondenter haft utmaningaratt balansera privat- och arbetslivet och att karaktärsdragen bakom en högpresterandeorganisation upplevs ligga bakom detta. Psykologiska teorier som sedan gick attapplicera på resultatet var Karaseks och Theorells krav, kontroll- och stödmodell samtBakker och Demeroutis jobbkrav- och resursmodell. / This study examines the work-life balance experiences of individuals working in a high-performance organization. The study is based on a qualitative method where the data isanalyzed through an inductive thematic analysis. After conducting the interviews, fourthemes could be summarized: performance-based pay, control, leadership, and workculture. The results showed that all respondents had challenges in balancing theirprivate and work life and that the characteristics of a high-performance organization areperceived to be behind this. Psychological theories that could then be applied to theresults were Karasek and Theorell's demand, control and support model and Bakker andDemerouti's job requirement and resource model.

本研究主要的目的以工作要求—資源模式(Job Demands-Resources model)為基礎，延伸JD-R模式之相關基本假定。雖然此模式之基本假定已獲許多實證研究支持，然而，卻仍無法有效解釋工作要求與工作投入之間的相關為何未能有穩定的關係。本研究欲衍伸以了解工作要求與工作資源是否具有不同的內涵，而這不同的內涵是否影響其與工作投入與倦怠的關係。 本研究依據理論分析將工作要求內涵分為挑戰型與阻礙型。而工作資源內涵則包括自由與發展及社會支持。以了解是否不同內涵的工作要求與工作資源，其對於工作投入和工作倦怠間的關係會有所差異，並探討其交互作用效果。 本研究採用結構式問卷調查，調查對象為台灣地區各類組織之279位全職工作者。研究結果發現:不論是挑戰型或是阻礙型要求皆會導致工作倦怠；而挑戰型要求對工作投入有正向影響。社會支持及自主與發展資源皆會引發工作投入；其中，社會支持對工作倦怠有負向影響。在交互作用效果方面，社會支持能有效調節阻礙型要求所引發的工作倦怠，而自主與發展資源在調節阻礙型要求所引發的工作倦怠亦達邊緣顯著。 依據研究結果，本研究建議，企業應給予員工充分的工作資源，不但可以增加員工工作投入的程度，更能減緩其工作倦怠。並且適當的給予挑戰型的要求，降低阻礙型的工作要求，以提升員工心理與生理健康，並提升組織的整體表現。 / Most researchers applied Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R model) to study the job stress. The JD-R model proposes job demands and job resources influenced. Although the part researches showed job demand could predict the burnout, but the results about relationship between job demands and engagement is inconsistent. Therefore, the aim of this study want to resolve this inconsistent result. This study recruited 279 Taiwanese employees. The study’s results showed: First, job demands and burnout were positively associated. Second, relationships among resources and engagement were consistently positive, while relationships among demands and engagement were highly dependent on the different characteristics of the job demand. When employees appraise the job demand as challenges, this job demand were positively associated with engagement. Third, the interaction between social support and hindrance demands significantly predicted the burnout.

Les cadres pendulaires à l’international représentent une catégorie de personnel émergente. Au gré de leurs missions à envergure internationale, ils navettent chaque semaine entre leur siège social et un pays du monde. Ils ne sont ni des expatriés, ni des cadres traditionnels. Qui sont-ils exactement ? Quelle dispositif de gestion est mis en place pour eux au sein des entreprises ? Leurs difficultés sont elles connues et reconnues ? Autant de questions que la littérature scientifique n’a pas encore abordées alors que le recours à la mobilité internationale de court terme a augmenté de 10% depuis 2002 et s’intensifiera encore dans les cinq ans à venir, les prévisions faisant état d’un accroissement de 20%. Poursuivant un objectif exploratoire, notre recherche pose la question de la caractérisation des cadre pendulaires à l’international et de leur relation au travail. Pour cela, nous avons mobilisé un ensemble de méthodes diversifiées (méthodes qualitatives, analyses de données quantitatives et utilisation du diary study) et des cadres théoriques d’analyse complémentaires (le modèle exigences-ressources (Demerouti et al., 2001) et le contrat psychologique (Rousseau, 1989). La recherche se compose de trois études complémentaires. La première étude quantitative (1 841 participants), qui a été réalisée en partenariat avec l’APEC, s’est ainsi focalisée sur l’examen des contours et caractéristiques des cadres pendulaires à l’international, mettant en évidence la similarité de leur niveau d’épuisement et de bien être émotionnel avec celui des cadres pendulaires nationaux et des cadres sédentaires ; elle a confirmé que cette catégorie de personnel, plus diversifiée que celle des expatriés, plus féminisée, avec des profils d’expert aussi bien que de managers, se comporte d’une manière spécifique. A travers la collecte de récits de vie (10 participants), la deuxième étude a, quant à elle, permis de définir le contrat psychologique des cadres pendulaires à l’international : ces derniers sacrifient leur temps, au détriment de la vie privée, en échange d’une évolution et d’un enrichissement professionnels. Des conflits entre les domaines de vie émergent lorsque que le navettage international menace le bien-être des proches ; le soutien du conjoint se présente alors comme une ressource primordiale, la troisième étude (30 participants), de type diary study, a mis en relief l’importance de certaines ressources pour la gestion au quotidien de ce type de mobilité : les opportunités professionnelles de développement et le détachement psychologique permettraient de contenir le niveau d’épuisement professionnel des cadres lors des déplacements. Des recommandations ont été émises afin que les entreprises apprennent à valoriser les cadres pendulaires à l’international. Ces derniers, intermédiaires entre le siège social et les filiales des multinationales, véhiculent l’information et la culture organisationnelle.C’est pourquoi ils représentent une valeur intangible fondamentale pour l’organisation. / Managers who commute internationally represent an emerging category of personnel. During their international missions, they commute weekly between their headquarters and other worldwide locations. They are neither expatriates, nor sedentary managers. Who exactly are they? What organizational policies and procedures have been implemented to manage and help them? Are their difficulties known and recognized? So many questions that the literature has not yet addressed, whereas the use of shortterm international mobility has increased by 10% since 2002 and a further mobility intensification is foreseen? in the next five years (20% increase). Following an exploratory objective, our research focused on the characterization of the managers who commute internationally and their relationship with the workplace. We utilized several methods (qualitative and quantitative methods, use of the diary study) and complementary theoretical frameworks (Job-Demands – Resources Model (Demerouti and al., 2001) and Psychological Contract (Rousseau, 1989)). Our work consisted of three studies. The first quantitative study (1.841 participants), lead through a partnership with APEC, examined the contours and characteristics of the managers who commute internationally, highlighting the similarity of their level of exhaustion and emotional well-being with that of national commuters and sedentary managers. It confirmed that this category of personnel, more diversified than the expatriates, more feminized, experts as well as managerial profiles, was characterized by a specific behavior. Through the collection of life stories (1 0 participants), the second study defined the psychological contract of the managers who commute internationally: those that sacrificed their time, to the detriment of their private life, in exchange of professional career and enrichment. Conflicts between private and professional life emerged when the international commuting threatened the family well-being; in this situation, spousal support was considered a primary resource. The third study (30participants), a diary study, highlighted the importance of certain resources to manage daily this kind of mobility: professional opportunities, development and psychological detachment limited the burnout level during the mission. Finally, recommendations were addressed in order to improve the organizational valorization of the managers who commute internationally. Indeed, these later are the intermediary between the headquarters and the subsidiaries of multinationals, they diffuse the organizational information and culture. They represent a fundamental intangible value that the organization has to care of. / I quadri pendolari internazionali rappresentano una categoria di personale emergente. A seconda delle loro missioni internazionali, viaggiano ogni settimana tra la loro sede di lavoro e altri paesi per il mondo. Essi non sono né degli espatriati e né dei quadri tradizionali. Chi sono realmente? Quale strumento di gestione ha implementato l’azienda per inquadrarli? Si conoscono le loro difficoltà ? Sono queste prese in considerazione dall’azienda? Tante domande che la letteratura non ha ancora affrontato, mentre l'uso della mobilità internazionale a breve termine è aumentato del 10% dal 2002 e tenderà ad intensificarsi ulteriormente nei prossimi cinque anni, con una crescita prevista del 20%. Con un obiettivo esplorativo, questa ricerca si interessa alla caratterizzazione dei quadri pendolari nella mobilità internazionale e della loro relazione con il lavoro. Lo studio è basato su un insieme di metodologie diversificate (metodologia qualitativa, analisi di dati quantitativi, uso del metodo diary study), su dei modelli teorici di analisi complementari (il JD-R Model (Demerouti et al., 2001) ed su il contratto psicologico (Rousseau, 1989). 3 studi complementari sono stati condotti. Il primo studio quantitativo (1 841 partecipanti) è concentrato sull'esame dei contorni e caratteristiche dei quadri pendolari internazionali, mettendo in evidenza la similarità del loro livello di esaurimento e di benessere emotivo con quello dei pendolari nazionali e quadri sedentari ; ha confermato che questa categoria di personale, più diversificata degli espatriati, più femminilizzata, includendo dei profili sia di esperti che di manager, si comporta in un determinato modo. Attraverso la raccolta di storie di vita (10 partecipanti), il secondo studio, a sua volta, ha definito il contratto psicologico dei quadri pendolari internazionali, essi sacrificano (a discapito della loro vita privata) il loro tempo in cambio di una evoluzione e di un arricchimento professionali. I conflitti tra le sfere di vita emergono quando il pendolarismo internazionale minaccia il benessere delle famiglie; il sostegno del coniuge si presenta allora come una risorsa fondamentale. Infine, il terzo studio (30 partecipanti), di tipo diary study, ha evidenziato l'importanza di alcune risorse per la gestione quotidiana di questo tipo di mobilità: opportunità di sviluppo professionale e distacco psicologico potrebbero contenere il livello di esaurimento professionale durante le trasferte. Infine, sono state suggerite delle raccomandazioni affinché le organizzazioni imparino a valorizzare questa categoria di personale che, facendo spola tra la sede centrale e le filiali delle multinazionali, è portatrice dell’informazione e della cultura dell’ organizzazione e costituisce un rilevante valore immateriale dell’azienda stessa.

Enhetschefer inom offentlig vård- och omsorgsverksamhet spelar en betydelsefull roll i uppdraget att leverera välfärdsarbete av hög kvalitet. Samtidigt präglas enhetschefsbefattningar av höga personalomsättningsnivåer i kommuner runt om i landet. Hur organisatoriska förutsättningar påverkar enhetschefer inom vård och omsorg i valet att avsluta sin anställning är inte fullt förstått. Syftet med föreliggande studie är därför att undersöka tidigare enhetschefers upplevda erfarenhet av att arbeta som enhetschef inom en offentlig vård- och omsorgsverksamhet och hur de organisatoriska förutsättningarna påverkat dem i valet att avsluta sin anställning. Genom en fenomenologisk fallstudie av en vård- och omsorgsverksamhet i en svensk kommun har 17 tidigare chefer intervjuats kring deras upplevelse av sin tidigare roll och anledningar till att ha avslutat sin anställning. Studiens resultat visar att enhetschefer inom vård- och omsorg påverkas av ett samspel mellan en rad organisatoriska faktorer i beslutet att avsluta sin anställning innefattande arbetskontroll, rollotydlighet, kontrollspann, illegitima arbetsuppgifter, kollegialt och organisatoriskt stöd samt logikkonflikter. Praktiska implikationer för att upprätta en hållbar enhetschefsroll inom offentlig vård- och omsorgsverksamhet diskuteras. / Line managers in the public health sector play a vital role in delivering high-quality welfare services. At the same time, the role of line managers demonstrates high turnover rates in municipalities throughout the country. As to how organizational work environment factors influence line managers in their decision to voluntary leave their employment is not fully understood. The purpose of the current study is therefore to investigate previous line managers’ lived experience of what it is like to work as a line manager within the public health sector and how various organizational factors affected them in their decision to leave their role. Through a phenomenological case study of a public health organization in a Swedish municipality, 17 previous line managers were interviewed regarding their lived experience as health sector line managers and reasons for leaving. The results reveal that public health sector line managers are affected by the interaction of various organizational factors in their decision to voluntary leave their employment including job control, role ambiguity, span of control, illegitimate tasks, colleague and organizational support as well as conflict of logics. Practical implications for restituting a sustainable line manager role within public health sector organizations are discussed.

Le modèle des demandes et ressources (JD-R) est largement utilisé pour comprendre comment promouvoir le bien-être et la performance des employés pour un large éventail de professions. Malgré de nombreuses études basées sur le JD-R, nous en savons relativement peu sur les entrepreneurs. Ainsi, l'objectif de cette thèse est d'évaluer l'impact de certaines caractéristiques du travail (c.-à-d., demandes et ressources au travail) sur la santé psychologique (c.-à-d., épuisement professionnel et engagement au travail) et la performance des entrepreneurs. Au total, une étude pilote, une étude longitudinale réalisée pendant la pandémie de COVID-19 et une étude comparative entre entrepreneurs et employés démontrent que les demandes au travail élevées (c.-à-d., surcharge, ambiguïté et conflit de rôle) épuisent les employés mentalement et physiquement, entraînant ainsi un épuisement énergétique et des problèmes de santé (c.-à-d., l'épuisement professionnel). En revanche, les ressources au travail (c.-à-d., l'autonomie, l'adaptabilité et la proactivité) se sont avérées favoriser l'engagement et la performance. Alternativement, les résultats suggèrent que les demandes et ressources au travail réduisent respectivement l'engagement et l'épuisement professionnel. Cependant, aucune interaction entre les demandes et ressources au travail n'a été trouvée. Une comparaison entre entrepreneurs et employés a également révélé que la relation entre les ressources au travail et l'engagement est moins importante pour les entrepreneurs que pour les employés. Ce projet de recherche démontre l'applicabilité et la transférabilité du modèle JD-R aux entrepreneurs et permet de mettre en évidence les différences entre cette population et les employés. / The Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R) is widely used to understand how to promote employee well-being and performance across a broad range of occupations. Despite many findings based on the JD-R, we know comparatively few about entrepreneurs. Thus, the objective of this thesis is to evaluate the impact of certain work characteristics (i.e., job demands and resources) on entrepreneurs’ well-being (i.e., burnout and work engagement) and performance. Altogether, a pilot study, a longitudinal study made during the COVID-19 pandemic, and a comparative study between entrepreneurs and employees showed that high job demands (i.e. role overload, role ambiguity, and role conflict) exhaust entrepreneurs mentally and physically, therefore leading to energy depletion and health problems (i.e. burnout). In contrast, job resources (i.e. autonomy, adaptivity, and proactivity) were found to foster engagement and performance. Alternatively, results suggest that job demands and resources respectively reduce engagement and burnout. However, no interactions between job demands and resources were found. A comparison between entrepreneurs and employees also revealed that the relation between job resources and engagement is more important for employees than for entrepreneurs. This research project demonstrates the applicability and transferability of the JD- R model to entrepreneurs and helps highlight differences between this population and employees.

Thesis (MCom)--Stellenbosch University, 2015. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The South African health care system is tormented by various challenges ranging from income inequalities, extreme resource scarcities to discrimination and violence. This makes the health care industry a tough work environment for health care personnel to operate in. South Africa has experienced the loss of thousands of nurses over the past decade, either emigrating or leaving the nursing profession altogether (Tshitangano, 2013). Consequently, this trend drew the attention to the well-being of nurses in South Africa. The primary objective of this study was to investigate the level of work engagement among private sector nurses in the Western Cape, together with their levels of job demands, job resources, personal resources, performance and job crafting. This was done using the Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R) of work engagement. The comprehensive JD-R model was tested and the validity of the proposed relationships between the constructs was examined. Moreover, additional paths in the model were proposed and tested. Managerial implications along with practical interventions were derived from the results with the aim to increase nurse well-being and retention. An ex post facto correlational design was used to test the formulated hypotheses in this research study. Quantitative data were collected from 311 nurses employed by a private hospital group by means of non-probability convenience sampling. A self-administered paper copy survey was distributed to hospitals given that they agreed to participate in the research. The survey was voluntary, anonymous and confidential. The survey consisted of five sections and included questions from five existing questionnaires, namely, the Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17) (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003), the Job Demands-Resources Scale (Rothman, Mostert & Strydom, 2006), the Work Design Questionnaire (Morgeson & Humhprey, 2006), the Psychological Capital Self-Rated Version (PsyCap-24) (Luthans, Avolio, Avey & Norman, 2006), and the Job Crafting Scale (Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2012). In order to test the statistical significance of the hypotheses, the data were subjected to Structural Equation modelling and regression analyses. The results indicated that the nurses experienced a high level of work engagement, and elucidated the fact that job resources, job demands, and job crafting aspects of their jobs are in need of industrial psychologist or managerial interventions. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die Suid-Afrikaanse gesondheidsisteem word geteister deur verskeie uitdagings wat onder andere inkomste ongelykhede, ekstreme hulpbron skaarshede, diskriminasie en geweld insluit. Dit maak die gesondheidsindustrie ʼn moeilike werksomgewing vir gesondheidspersoneel om in te werk. Suid-Afrika het duisende verpleegsters oor die laaste dekade verloor as gevolg van emigrasie, terwyl ander die professie in geheel verlaat het (Tshitangano, 2013). Gevolglik het hierdie tendens die aandag getrek na die welstand van verpleegsters in Suid-Afrika. Die primêre doel van hierdie studie was om die vlak van werksbetrokkenheid onder ʼn steekproef van privaatsektor verpleegsters in die Wes-Kaap te ondersoek, tesame met hulle vlakke van werkseise, werkshulpbronne, persoonlike hulpbronne, werksprestasie en posverryking. Die Job Demands-Resources model (JD-R) of work engagement is vir hierdie doel ingespan. Die omvattende model tesame met die geldigheid van die voorgestelde verhoudings tussen die konstrukte is getoets. Addisionele verhoudings is ook voorgestel en getoets. Bestuursimplikasies en praktiese intervensies is van die resultate afgelei en word aan bestuurders voorgelê as moontlike oplossings om verpleegsters se welstand en retensie te verhoog. ʼn Ex post facto korrelasie-ontwerp is gebruik om die geformuleerde hipoteses in hierdie studie te toets. Kwantitatiewe data is van 311 verpleegsters ingesamel wat deur ʼn private hospitaalgroep in diens geneem word. Nie-waarskynlikheid gerieflikheidsteekproeftrekking is gebruik om die steekproef te bepaal. ʼn Self-geadministreerde vraelys is ontwikkel en as harde kopie uitgestuur na dié hospitale wat ingestem het om aan die navorsing deel te neem. Die vraelys is vrywillig, anoniem en konfidensieel ingevul en het uit vyf seksies bestaan. Die vyf seksies se vrae is opgemaak uit verskeie bestaande vraelyste, naamlik, die Utrecht Work Engagement Scale (UWES-17) (Schaufeli & Bakker, 2003), die Job Demands-Resources Scale (Rothman, Mostert & Strydom, 2006), die Work Design Questionnaire (Morgeson & Humhprey, 2006), die Psychological Capital Self-Rated Version (PsyCap-24) (Luthans, Avolio, Avey & Norman, 2006), en die Job Crafting Scale (Tims, Bakker & Derks, 2012). Ten einde die statistiese beduidendheid van die hipoteses te toets, is die data deur strukturele vergelykingsmodellering en regressie-ontledings ontleed. Die resultate dui daarop dat die verpleegsters 'n hoë vlak van werksbetrokkenheid ervaar, en dat werkshulpbronne, werkseise en posverrykende aspekte van hulle werk bestuurs- of bedryfsielkundige intervensies verlang.