Smart cards are widely used in different areas of modern life including identification, banking, and transportation cards. Some types of cards are able to store data and process information as well. A number of them can run cryptographic algorithms to enhance the security of their transactions and it is usually believed that the information and values stored in them are completely safe. However, this is generally not the case due to the threat of the side channel. Side channel analysis is the process of obtaining additional information from the internal activity of a physical device beyond that allowed by its specifications. There exist different techniques to attempt to obtain information from a cryptosystem using other ways than the normally permitted. This thesis presents a series of experiments intended to study the side channel from a particular type of smart card, known as Java Cards. This investigation uses the well known technique, Correlation Analysis, and a new type of side channel attack called fast correlation in the frequency domain to study the side channel of Java Cards. This research presents a giant magnetoresistor (GMR) probe and for the first time, this type of sensor is used to investigate the side channel. A novel setup designed for studying the side channel of smart cards is described and two metrics used to evaluate the analysis results are presented. After testing the GMR probe and methodology on electronic devices executing the Advanced Encryption Standard (AES), such as 8 bit microcontrollers and 128 bit AES implementations on FPGAs, these techniques were applied to analyse two different models of Java Cards working in the contactless mode. The results show that successful attacks on a software implementation of AES running on both models of Java Cards are possible.

This thesis deals with the investigations on the nonlinear electrical and manganetotransport properties of polycrystalline multi-phase ceramic composites of Zno/pervoskite manganite. Multifunctional properties are studied such as the enhanced low-field magnetoresistance(LFMR). magnetically tuneable low-voltage nonlinear current-voltage (I-V) characteristics with larger nonlinearity coefficients suitable for semiconducting and magnetoelectric devices. A brief introduction on the structure-property correlations, electronic and magnetic structures, nonlinear electrical conduction, phase separation, grain size and grain boundary effects on transport properties of manganites are presented. The nonlinear current-voltage characteristics of ZnO based varistors are also summarized. The thesis describes the synthesis of the ceramics and the methodology of different techniques utilized in characterizing the samples. The phase conversions in calcium manganite with changing Ca/Mn ratios as well as the oxygen non-stoichiometry and their influence on electrical transport properties were studied. The realization of low-voltage varistors prepared from ZnO+ CaMnO3 ceramic composites was described. An energy band model consisting of n-p-n heterojunctions of n-ZnO1-γ:Mn/p-CMZO/n-ZnO1 γ:Mn has been proposed in order to explain the large nonlinearity coefficients obtained at low field-strengths of 1.8 to 12 V/mm. The detailed investigationos on the structural identification and physico-chemical analyses of Ca4Mn7Zn3O21-δ(CMZO) phases having the beta-alumina or magnetoplumbite-type structures were carried out. The thesis also embodies the magnetically tuneable nonlinear I-V characteristics and the magnetotransport properties of ZnO/La(Sr)MnO3 and ZnO/La(Ca,Sr)MnO3 ceramic composites. The present investigations demonstrate that the ferromagnetic insulating (FMI) La06 Sr04Mn1-yZnyO3(y = 3 to 8 at.%) when present as minor phase in ZnO1- γ:Mn ceramics enables in attaining magnetically tunealbe nonlinear I-V characteristics. Wherein, the dominant ZnO1- γ:Mn phase remains paramagnetic. The results also indicate that the prevalence of ferromagnetism in ZnO1-γ:Mn is not significant for realizing magnetically tuneable I-V curves. The controversial results related to the existence of ferromagnetism in ZnO(doped)leading to diluted magnetic semiconductors(DMS) have been investigated. Another novel aspect of the present work is the low-field magnetoresistive(LFMR) property of ZnO/La(Sr)MnO3 and ZnO/La(Ca.Sr)MnO3 ceramic composites which been explained on the basis of spin-polarised tunneling across the intergrain regions. The influence of Zn2+ as a diamagnetic substitutent in modifying the crystallographic phase content, electrical transport and magnetic properties of Lao6Sro4MnO3 were studied in detail. The results point towards the fact the large decrease of Tc and Ms at lower Zn contents(≤ 8 at.%)is due to the dominant role played by the excess oxygen vacancy (Vo) as an electron donor in p-type Lao6Sro4Mn1-yZnyO3-δ rather than the charge compensatively predictable values. The modifications of electronic and magnetotransport properties were carried out on Lao6Sro4MnO3 substituted with diamagnetic ions such as Mg2+ - Al3+ - Ti4+ - Nb5+ - Mo6+ or W6+ at Mn-sublattice. The TEM studies including HREM results point to the fact the large ΔT(= Tc-TM-1)is accountable in terms of charge conduction within the electronically heterogeneous phase mixtures of charge ordered insulating (CO1) bi-stripes prevailing within the charge disordered FMI phases.

In this thesis I present studies of some transport and spectroscopic properties for two di erent materials exhibiting large magnetoresistance. Both of these materials are oxides of transition metals, showing exotic magnetic and transport properties. Despite these similarities, they are very different in many other aspects. One of them is an oxide of Manganese, along with a rare-earth metal, and exhibits large magnetoresistance under certain conditions, when doped by an alkaline earth metal. They are known as doped rare-earth manganites. The other material, Sr2FeMoO6, exhibits large magnetoresistance in the parent compound, without any doping, but only in the polycrystalline state. The manganites, on the other hand, show magnetoresistance under appropriate conditions in both single crystal and in polycrystalline state. Moreover, manganites exhibit several Metal-Insulator Transitions (MIT) as a function of doping, temperature and magnetic field. Sr2FeMoO6, on the other hand, is usually always metallic. In the first chapter, a brief introduction is provided regarding different types of magnetoresistance (MR) phenomena observed in different materials, namely Anisotropic MR (AMR), Giant MR (GMR), Collosal MR (CMR), Tunneling MR (TMR), Powder MR (PMR) etc. Out of these, CMR and PMR are found in doped manganites, while Sr2FeMoO6 exhibits PMR only. Next, a brief overview of the structure, properties and theories for both of these materials is provided. For the case of doped manganites, a short introduction is given for a novel two-fluid hamiltonian (called l - b model) which was proposed recently by Ramakrishnan et. al.. This model reproduces several exotic transport and magnetic properties of manganites which were inexplicible by earlier theories. The model was solved within the Dynamical Mean Field Theory (DMFT) framework by Hassan et. al.. A brief description of this DMFT solution is given. Many of the DMFT results for this model have been used in the subsequent chapters. In the second chapter, the hysteresis behaviour of the magnetoresistance and the magnetization (M ) of powdered Sr2FeMoO6 is considered in detail. In a recent experi- ment by Sarma et. al., it was found that this material, when powdered exhibits an exotic variety of PMR. In ordinary PMR, the hysteresis behaviour of the MR is supposed to follow that of M, in the sense that the coercive fields should be identical in both cases. Also, the MR is supposed to be roughly proportional to the square of the magnetization. However, in the experiments by Sarma et. al. on cold-pressed Sr2FeMoO6 powder, it was observed that the M R did not appear to be determined purely by the magnetization. Rather, the coercive fields for the hysteresis of the MR was almost 6 times that of M . Moreover, the quantity M R/M2, instead of remaining constant with changing magnetic field, itself has a hysteresis loop. Apart from establishing the exotic nature of the PMR, the experiment also tries to determine whether the MR originates from intra-grain or inter-grain tunneling. In the second chapter we present a simple toy model to reproduce the experimental results, and provide theoretical explanations. A combination of Monte Carlo and transfer matrix methods are used to simulate the hysteresis behaviour of the M R as well as of M . We show that the observed data can be understood if it is as- sumed firstly that the MR arises predominantly from inter-grain rather than intra-grain tunneling, and that the inter-grain boundaries are themselves magnetic with a coercive field higher than that of the grains. In order to motivate the use of Monte Carlo method for studying hysteresis, a brief survey of main results obtained for some simple models using this technique is also provided. In the third chapter, we study the doping and temperature dependence of core-level photoemission spectra in doped rare-earth manganites. In some recent experiments on Strontium doped (LSMO) and Barium doped (LBMO) samples, it has been observed that the M n2p3/2 core-level spectra shows an intriguing spectral weight transfer over a range of several eV , as a function of doping (x) and temperature (T ), in the ferromagnetic metallic phase. Specifically, there appears a shoulder adjacent to the main peak on the side of lower binding energy, which increases in weight and intensity as the doping increases or the temperature decreases. In LSMO samples, another shoulder was noticed on the higher binding energy side also. Moreover, in data obtained from LBMO samples, the spectra at different temperatures was subtracted from the spectra at/above Tc, and then this difference spectrum was integrated. The integrated weight, when normalized by the weight at the lowest temperature, appears to follow the square of the measured magnetization almost exactly. In order to understand the experimental data, we extended the aforementioned l - b model to include a core-level, and the attractive interaction due to a core-hole on the local valence levels. The impurity problem arising in DMFT, consisting of a single impurity site coupled to a bath, was tailored for the photoemission problem, by including this extra core-level at the impurity site. The hybridization parameters for the bath were determined self-consistently from the DMFT, and then the single particle spectral function for the core-hole was determined. This spectral function is proportional to the photo emission intensity. We found that our calculations reproduced the observed spectral weight transfer as a function of x and T both in trends and in magnitude. The integrated difference spectra weight was found to follow the square of the DMFT magnetization, just as in the experiment. Linear discretization of the conduction bath was used for all the above-mentioned cases. In one particular case, a logarithmic discretization was also undertaken for comparison, and also to obtain the exponents of the edge singularities in the theoretical spectra. In the fourth chapter, the possibility of Anderson Localization in manganites is in- vestigated, using the l - b model. According to this model, a large fraction of the valence electrons are polaronically self-trapped even in the ferromagnetic metallic phase. Due to strong on-site Coulomb interaction, these polarons provide a strongly scattering background, which can localize the mobile-electron band states close to the band edges. Since the fraction of valence electrons which are truly mobile is small, hence the Fermi energy lies close to the lower band edge. Hence, there is a possibility of an Anderson Insulator phase where all charge carriers are localized. To investigate this, we studied the behaviour of the mobility edges as a function of doping. DMFT alone does not include the physics of localization. Hence, in order to obtain the mobility edges, we combined the DMFT results with the Self-consistent Theory of Localization (STL), using a simplified prescription called Potential Well Analogy (PWA) due to Economou et. al.. We found that there is indeed an Anderson Insulator phase in a certain region of doping, which would otherwise have been supposed to be metallic based on purely DMFT results. Finally, we have compared this result, obtained using effective field theories, with an actual real space simulation of the l - b model at T=0. In this case, the mobility edge trajectories were obtained by studying the Inverse Participation Ratio (IPR), as a function of band energy and doping. In the concluding chapter, the principal results presented in this thesis are summa- rized. The limitations of the approach or approximations used are discussed, and future possibilities for overcoming these limitations outlined.

Study of rare-earth manganites has been a very active research area in the last few years in condensed matter physics. This is due to the interesting phenomena such as (1) colossal magneto resistance (2) charge, orbital and spin ordering and (3) phase separation exhibited by these materials as a function of doping, pressure and temperature [1-3]. There is a lot of experimental data available in literature on different doped manganites, but no satisfactory and complete theoretical understanding is available yet. Though different theoretical models proposed are able to explain certain individual physical properties, a unified theory is missing which can comprehensively explain the full phase diagram. The study of such complex systems requires a probe that is sensitive to various interactions observed in manganites such as spin-spin interactions, spin-lattice interactions, spin-orbit interactions, crystal field interactions and the magnetic environment of the spins. Electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) being sensitive to these interactions is an ideal probe for investigating these strongly correlated systems. A number of EPR studies have been reported in the paramagnetic phase of manganites, throwing light on the complex spin dynamics present in the manganites [4-10]. There are a few reports in the ferromagnetic state of manganites [11-12]. In recent years, a few studies reporting the observation of phase separation using EPR have also been published [13-15]. Charge ordering phase is the other interesting phase, which is not understood from EPR point of view [16-19]. Recently there are a few reports on suppression of CO phase by reducing the particle size from micro to nano range [20-22]. In this thesis we present the results of Electron Magnetic Resonance (EMR) (EPR in the paramagnetic phase and FMR: ferromagnetic resonance in the ferromagnetic phase) studies supported by magnetization and magneto-transport studies of the following : (1) various magnetic phases in the two electron doped manganite Ca1-xCexMnO3 (CCMO) (2) Charge ordered phase vs. ferromagnetic metallic phase as a function of Cr and Ni doping at the Mn site of Nd0.5Ca0.5MnO3 (NCMO) and comparison between the effect of the two dopants, and (3) a study of nano-sized particles (with different particle size) of Cr doped NCMO. Chapter 1 of the thesis consists of a brief introduction to the general features of manganites describing various phenomena and the interactions underlying them. Further we have written a detailed overview of EPR studies in manganites describing the current level of understanding in the area. In this chapter we have also described the experimental methodology and the analysis procedure adopted in this work. Chapter 2 reports the magnetization, transport and electron paramagnetic resonance studies (EPR) on two electron-doped manganites Ca1-xCexMnO3 (0.075 ≤ x ≤ 0.20). The various compositions of CCMO were prepared by solid-state synthesis and characterized by different techniques like XRD, SEM, EDX, and ICPAES. Our magnetization and transport results are consitent with the earlier reports [23-25]. For compositions x ≥ 0.13, all the EPR parameters viz. intensity, linewidth and the resonance field show signatures of a CO phase and at low temperature coexistence of two magnetic phases. x = 0.1 composition shows the most interesting results. Though the EPR intensity and resonance field indicate the presence of a CO phase, the EPR linewidth shows behaviour of a spin-disordered phase which we attribute to a possible spin-liquid phase [26]. The linewidth for x = 0.11 composition shows a combination of a CO and a spin-disorderd phase. For low composition x = 0.075, we observe a weak ferromagnetic phase and later on at low temperatures an antiferromagnetic phase. We do not observe the CO phase for this composition. In chapter 3, we present the magnetization, magnetotransport and EMR studies on Cr doped NCMO (0.0 ≤ x ≤ 0.10) [27]. The samples were prepared by solid-state synthesis and characterized by various techniques like XRD, SEM, EDX, and ICPAES. The magnetization studies show that the Cr doping induces ferromagnetic phase at low temperatures. With the increase of Cr doping the magnetization increases at the expense of the CO phase and for higher doping CO phase disappears completely. The Cr doping induces insulator-metal transition and with increase of Cr doping the metallic phase increases. The doped samples show high CMR, almost 100%, near the TC. The EMR studies in the paramagnetic phase indicate a CO phase for low Cr doping and the presence of short-range dynamical CO-OO correlations for higher Cr doping, which were not observed in magnetization studies. We observe two EPR signals at low temperatures for the Cr doped samples. For 3% doping, the two signals appear well above TC whereas for higher doping (5%, 10%) the two signals were observed in the FM phase. We rule out the possibility of the two-signal behaviour arising from the coexistence of two magnetic phases. For higher doping, the presence of two signals in FM phase can be attributed to magnetic anisotropy. With increase of Cr doping, magnetic anisotropy decreases which is also supported by reduction of magnetic anisotropy in magnetization measurements. But it cannot explain the observation of two signals above TC in the 3% doped sample. In chapter 4, we present the magnetization, magnetotransport and EMR studies on Ni doped NCMO (0.0 ≤ x ≤ 0.10). The samples were prepared by solid-state synthesis and characterized by various techniques like XRD, SEM, EDX, and ICPAES. The magnetization studies show that the Ni doping induces ferromagnetic phase at low temperatures. With the increase of Ni doping, though the CO phase is suppressed, the FMM phase also weakens which is different from the behaviour observed in Cr doped NCMO. The Ni doping induces insulator-metal transition and with increase of Ni doping, the metallic phase weakens. The magnetic anisotropy increases with increase of Ni doping as obtained from magnetization measurements and the EMR data also corroborates the same fact. The EMR studies in the paramagnetic phase indicate a CO phase for low Ni doping and the presence of short-range dynamical CO-OO correlations for higher Ni doping, which were not observed in magnetization studies. We observe two signals in the FM phase, which again can be attributed to the magnetic anisotropy. In chapter 5, we present EMR studies on nano-particles of Cr doped NCMO for x = 0.03. We have prepared nano-particles of three different sizes by the sol-get route. The samples were characterized by various techniques like XRD, SEM, EDX, and ICPAES. The particle sizes are 50, 100, 200 nm. We also compare the results of nano samples with the bulk samples. The ac susceptibility measurements show that the FM phase increases with the reduction of particle size. The EMR measurements show that the magnetic anisotropy decreases with decrease of particle size. The EMR linewidth in the paramagnetic phase increases with the decrease of particle size. The EMR intensity also increases with the reduction of particle size consitent with the magnetization results. The EMR results show that the reduction of particle size is one more way of inducing FM phase more effectively. Also the CO phase gets suppressed with the reduction of particle size. The two-signal feature is observed for all the particles. For nano-sized particles, the two signals appear in FM phase whereas in bulk sample they appeared well above TC. For 50 nm sized particles, the two signals appear well below 40 K. Thus we conclude that with decrease of particle size, the magnetic anisotropy decreases. The thesis concludes with a brief writeup summarizing the results and indicating possible future directions of research in the area.

Die vorliegende Dissertation "Struktur und Magnetotransport laserdeponierter Lanthanmanganat Dünnschichtsysteme" beschäftigt sich mit der Herstellung, den strukturellen Eigenschaften und dem Magnetotransport von ferromagnetisch-metallischen Lanthanmanganat-Schichten La0.7A0.3MnO3 (A=Sr, Ca) und Schichtsystemen. Die untersuchten Schichten und Schichtsysteme wurden mittels Laserablation in "off-axis" Geometrie auf einkristallinen oxidischen Substraten abgeschieden. An einer Serie von polykristallinen La0.7Sr0.3MnO3/Y:ZrO2(100) Schichten wurde der Korngrenzen-Magnetowiderstandseffekt ferromagnetisch-metallischer Manganate untersucht. Durch Variation der Substrattemperatur während der Abscheidung läßt sich die Textur graduell einstellen. Untersuchungen des quantitativen Verhaltens des Magnetowiderstandes zeigen eine klare Korrelation des Niederfeld-Magnetowiderstandes und des Hochfeld-Magnetowiderstandes. Durch Untersuchungen an einer nichttexturierten Schicht in hohen gepulsten Magnetfeldern konnte auf einen indirekten Tunnelprozeß der Elektronen durch die Korngrenze entsprechend einem Modell von Lee et al. geschlossen werden, wobei die magnetische Ordnung der Korngrenze antiferromagnetisch ist. An den epitaktischen Schichtserien La0.7Ca0.3MnO3/NdGaO3(110) und La0.7Sr0.3MnO3/SrTiO3(100) und an heteroepitaktischen Multilagen (La0.7Sr0.3MnO3/SrTiO3)n/SrTiO3(100) wurden die strukturellen, magnetischen und elektrische Eigenschaften in Abhängigkeit von der Schichtdicke und der Einfluß der Grenzflächeneigenschaften untersucht. Allgemein zeigte sich, daß die mechanische Verspannung und Mikrostruktur der Schichten einen großen Einfluß auf deren physikalischen Eigenschaften haben. Die beobachtete Reduzierung der Curie-Temperatur, der Metall-Isolator-Übergangstemperatur und der spontanen Magnetisierung kann auf den finite-size Effekt und auf die Ausbildung von Perkolationspfaden (metallische Cluster in nichtmetallischer Matrix) in den ultradünnen Schichen zurückgeführt werden.

Two of the principal phenomena observed and exploited in the field of spintronics are giant magnetoresistance (GMR) and spin transfer torque (STT). With GMR, the resistance of a magnetic multilayer is affected by the relative orientation of its magnetic layers due to (electron) spin dependent scattering. For the STT effect, a spin-polarized electric current is used to alter the magnetic state of a ferromagnet. Together, GMR and STT are at the foundation of numerous technologies, and they hold promise for many more applications. To achieve the high current densities (~10¹² A/m²) that are necessary to observe STT effects, point contacts – constricted electrical pathways (~1–100 nm in diameter) between conducting materials – are often used because of their small cross-sectional areas. In this sense, we have explored STT in bilayer magnetic nanopillars, where an electric current was used to induce precession of a ferromagnetic layer. This precessional state was detected as an increase in resistance of the device, akin to GMR. Temperature dependent measurements of the onset of precession shed light on the activation mechanism, but raised further questions about its detailed theory. Point contacts can also be used as local sources or detectors of electrons. In this context, we have observed transverse electron focusing (TEF) in a single crystal of bismuth. TEF is a k-selective technique for studying electron scattering from within materials. Using lithographically fabricated point contacts, we have studied the temperature dependence of the relaxation time for ballistic electrons from 4.2 to 100 K. These measurements indicated a transition between electron-electron dominated scattering at low temperatures and electron-phonon scattering as the Debye temperature was approached. We present preliminary work toward a TEF experiment to measure spin dependent scattering from a non-magnet/magnet interface. We also investigated spin wave propagation in thin, magnetic waveguide structures. At the boundary between the waveguide and continuous magnetic film, spin wave rays were found to radiate into the film, or to reflect and form standing waves in the waveguide. A circular defect in the waveguide was observed to cause diffraction of spin waves, generating an interference pattern of higher modes of oscillation. / text

No description available.

No description available.

Transition metal and related compounds have been extensively studied over the past several decades. These investigations revealed a wide range of behavior, encompassing colossal magnetoresistance (CMR), high-TC superconductivity, and magnetic semiconductivity, all of which continue to present fundamental challenges to the understanding of such phenomena. There is, however, a close correlation between such characteristics and the appearance of magnetic order. This correlation underlies the present study, which focuses on the magnetic and transport behavior of various Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe) and Cobalt (Co) containing materials, with particular emphasis on the nature of the magnetic order they display and the critical exponents that characterize the accompanying phase transition. The magnetic and transport properties of two specific systems will be covered: first various doped manganites from the series (La,Pr)1-x(Ca,Ba)xMnO3, and second the magnetic semiconductors Fe0.8Co0.2Si and Ga0.98Mn0.02As. In the manganites, the influence of doping on; (i) the evolution of the metal-insulator transition (MIT) with composition; (ii) the universality class of the magnetic critical behavior associated with the paramagnetic to ferromagnetic transition, which occurs in the vicinity of a MIT with which CMR is associated; (iii) the mechanisms underlying ferromagnetism across the MIT; (iv) the correlation between the appearance of a Griffiths-like phase and CMR, and (v) the origin of Griffiths-like phase have been investigated. Four different systems have been studied: La1-xCaxMnO3 (0.18 ≤ x ≤ 0.27), La1-xBaxMnO3 (x ≤ 0.33), (La1-yPry)0.7Ca0.3Mn16/18O3 (y ≤ 0.85), and Pr1-xCaxMnO3 (x = 0.27, 0.29). In Fe0.8Co0.2Si and Ga0.98Mn0.02As, the scaling between magnetization and conductivity has been the subject of ongoing debate. In bulk Fe0.8Co0.2Si, a novel scaling between the anomalous Hall effect (AHE) and the magnetization enables the anomalous Hall coefficient to be accurately determined. In turn, this enables the universality class for the transition to ferromagnetism to be established independently from the anomalous Hall conductivity. In an epitaxial (metallic) Ga0.98Mn0.02As microstructure, the magnetization has been indirectly determined from the AHE. Subsequent analysis yields magnetic critical exponents consistent with the Mean-Field model, direct support for which had previously been lacking.

In the last years, the progressive miniaturization of magnetic storage devices has imposed the necessity to understand how the physical properties are modi- ed with respect to the bulk when the dimensions are reduced at the nanometric scale. For this reason an accurate method of preparation and characterization of nanostructures is extremely important. This work focuses on the magnetic and transport properties of cluster-assembled nanostructures, namely cobalt nanoparticles embedded in copper matrices. Our setup allows us to independently control the mean cluster size, the concentration and the chemical composition. The cobalt cluster production is based on magnetron sputtering and gas phase aggregation. The performance of the source permits a wide range of cluster masses, from one to several thousand atoms. As a rst step we studied the role of inter-particle interactions in the transport and magnetic properties, increasing the cobalt nanoparticle concentration (from 0.5% to 2.5% and 5%). Our results demonstrate the necessary precautions and constitute a solid basis for further studies of the spintronic properties of granular systems. Finally, in order to describe the intrinsic magnetic properties of cluster-assembled nanostructures, we prepared strongly diluted samples (<0.5%) for di erent cluster sizes from 1.9 nm to 5.5 nm. We found that the magnetic properties are size-dependent. Using a complete magnetic characterization, sensitive to the change in the e ective magnetic anisotropy, we show that the magnetic anisotropy is dominated by the contributions of the surface or of the shape of the nanoparticles.