Les problématiques internationales liées aux enfants sont nombreuses. La vulnérabilité socioéconomique de ce groupe d'individus paraît grandissante dans les pays en développement, particulièrement depuis les crises financières et économiques des années 1980 et 1990. Suite à la ratification de la Convention relative aux droits de l'enfant en 1989, de nombreux programmes, conférences et objectifs internationaux visant directement les enfants ont été mis sur pied. Nous croyons qu'une homogénéisation émane des stratégies se proclamant de portée mondiale et que cela est inadéquat en raison de l'hétérogénéité des situations des enfants des pays en développement. Puisque les problématiques des enfants dans les pays en développement peuvent être très diversifiées, ce mémoire de maîtrise examinera la gestion politique de la précarisation des enfants du Sénégal. Nous allons démontrer que les stratégies nationales et internationales d'aide aux enfants sont fondées sur une conception occidentalisée de l'enfance que l'on tente d'imposer comme étant universelle et qui marginalise ainsi les spécificités culturelles, socioéconomiques et historiquement situées d'un pays comme le Sénégal. La thèse centrale défendue est que la précarisation des enfants au Sénégal emprunte des formes spécifiques déterminées par les conditions économiques, les pratiques socioculturelles et les dynamiques de genre. Toutefois, les stratégies internationales d'aide à l'enfance et de lutte à la pauvreté infantile, de même que les programmes nationaux qui en découlent, semblent s'inscrire dans une notion universalisée de l'enfance alors que cette conception ne tient pas suffisamment compte des particularités de la précarisation des enfants au Sénégal. Afin de démontrer les conséquences de l'inadéquation culturelle des stratégies internationales et des politiques nationales, nous analyserons les principaux secteurs d'activités qui concernent les enfants au Sénégal, soit le travail et les pratiques éducatives, afin de vérifier si les particularités liées à ces activités sont suffisamment prises en compte. L'objectif de ce travail est d'identifier les diverses formes de précarisation des enfants au Sénégal dans le but d'invalider les prétentions internationales d'homogénéisation des besoins des enfants et d'universalisation de la conception de l'enfance. Nous allons démontrer que les facteurs déterminant la précarisation des enfants au Sénégal ne sont pas suffisamment pris en compte dans les stratégies politiques nationales et internationales d'aide à l'enfance et de lutte à la pauvreté, diminuant ainsi leur efficacité. En conclusion, nous réitérons notre critique quant à l'universalisme des stratégies et conceptions proposées par les institutions onusiennes et nous démontrons leur inadéquation face au contexte sénégalais. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : précarisation, genre, enfants, éducation, Sénégal, travail des enfants, droits des enfants, enfance idéale, talibés, apprentis

<p>The vulnerable social situation of the indigenous women in Bolivia is often on the agenda</p><p>of many organisations (CSOs and NGOs). Especially, the deep rooted socio-political</p><p>discrimination of this group has been addressed in several researches and during various</p><p>international development forums. However, few of these investigations have tried to</p><p>understand in what ways the Aymara women themselves want to be supported by</p><p>organisations in order to become socially empowered. In regard to this, the contemplation</p><p>of this Master Thesis has been to, in an inductive manner, increase the understanding of</p><p>the concept of social empowerment from the perspectives of Aymara women and</p><p>NGOs/CSOs. To do so a qualitative field based study, aimed at letting Aymara women</p><p>themselves explain the social situation, was conducted in Bolivia during the spring 2007.</p><p>The outcome of this research has also served as a foundation to a discussion, with special</p><p>references to the Swedish aid-agency Svalorna Latinamerika, concerning what NGOs and</p><p>CSOs ought to consider when working with social empowerment of Aymara women.</p><p>The overarching methodological approach of the study has been that of a bottom-up</p><p>implementation analysis. In order to retrieve information from the field techniques such as</p><p>socio-anthropological studies, observations, interactions and interviews have been applied.</p><p>Several interesting insights and conclusions have been retrieved from the investigation. The</p><p>primarily conclusion drawn is that empowerment can neither be received nor given as it has</p><p>the features of a learning process. Accordingly, in regard to this organisations must adopt</p><p>the role of 'supporters' rather than 'suppliers'. Secondly, it has been reasoned that any</p><p>undertaking aimed at supporting social empowerment for and of Aymara women must be</p><p>synchronised with the progression of the women's learning processes. This specifically</p><p>suggests that organisations must adopt long-run as well as holistic programmes rather than</p><p>ad hoc activities. The overall conclusion drawn is that if the social empowerment for and of</p><p>Aymara women is to benefit from the undertakings of organisations the planning,</p><p>implementation and evaluation of the activities must primarily be based on terms given by</p><p>the women.</p><p>4</p>

<p>This essay deals with the topic of regional integration in Africa. Using the Southern African Development Community (SADC) as an example, it seeks to answer the question what constitutes a successful region organisation. To do this a number of criteria defining success were developed and subsequently applied to the SADC, the main one beeing the organisations ability to adapt to change. In order to be able to show whether and how the SADC has reacted to and accommodated changes, the analysis was built around a description of the historical evolution of the SADC(C). The changes made by the SADC (political structure, membership, goals) have been summarised and assessed. Special attention was paid to the (potential) problems identified by Winfried Lang (1982).</p><p>Guided by the thoughts of Winfried Lang and the criteria used in this essay defining what constitutes a successful regional organisation, we find that the Southern African Development Community is rather successful. The SADCC seems to have created a good basis for integration, and the organisation has proven ist ability to adapt to changes, even if they are as all-embracing as the end of the apartheid regime in the RSA and the subsequent membership of the former opponent. One can thus suppose that the SADC could, if necessary, accomodate changed circumstances again, and is thus unlikely to become one of the many failed regional organisations in Africa.</p><p> </p>

This dissertation aims to examine some aspects of special education in Swedish upper secondary schools. The availability of special education resources, the occurrence of ability grouping and the organisational modalities of special education support are investigated. The further aim of the thesis is to discuss how these phenomena can be understood on the basis of democratic educational theories and theories of social educational justice. The study describes how special education support was organised in 764 upper secondary schools in Sweden in the academic school year 2010/2011, with a response rate of 80.4% (n=764). The design of the study is a cross-sectional total population survey, where data have been collected by way of questionnaires and supplemented with public statistics. The results of the study show that about 37.5% of upper secondary schools lack special education resources in terms of special educators or special education teachers. Special education support is not provided in 68% of the independent schools compared with 10% of the public schools. This uneven balance between public and independent schools can be interpreted to be a threat to an equivalent and democratic school, since students in need of special support do not have the same opportunities to receive such support in all schools. Furthermore, schools with a higher average parental educational background have shown higher availability of special education resources. It seems that students with parents who have higher educational backgrounds have to a greater extent access to special education resources. Ability grouping is used in about 43% of the schools. It is most commonly used within foundation subjects, particularly in Mathematics. The schools that use ability grouping to a very large extent have lower and more varied merit rating values and greater availability of special education resources. Special education support is primarily provided outside the students’ regular teaching groups. This is also the case with support provided by other school staff: indeed, 87% of the schools report that the majority of special education support is provided outside the students’ regular teaching groups. This can be understood as a way to organise special support in which heterogeneity and pluralism are not considered important. Based on democratic theories, the support provided outside the regular teaching group might be a risk to the creation of a democratic school where all students are given opportunities to meet and interact.    Overall, the results from this thesis show that special education resources are unevenly distributed among independent and public schools; that 43% of the schools use ability grouping; and that special support is primarily provided outside the students’ regular teaching groups. / <p>At the time of the doctoral defense, the following paper was unpublished and had a status as follows: Paper 3: In press.</p><p> </p>

La comédie musicale Rent de Jonathan Larson bouleverse l'univers de Broadway dès son arrivée en 1996. La pièce emprunte certes bon nombre d'éléments propres au genre, mais s'en sert pour mettre de l'avant une réalité crue et marginale, dépeinte sur un fond musical résolument plus rock. Elle offre un regard intime sur les conséquences du sida, inspiré du contact de Larson avec le syndrome par l'intermédiaire de ses amis atteints. Pourtant, alors qu'elle profite d'un succès populaire indéniable, Rent demeure à ce jour boudée de façon générale par les groupes militants à titre d'instrument légitime de sensibilisation dans la lutte contre le sida. Ce mémoire a pour but d'explorer la force subversive réelle de l'œuvre de Larson, c'est-à-dire si Rent manque effectivement la profondeur et la pertinence nécessaires pour revendiquer sa place dans les rangs militants, ou si son potentiel d'outil de transformation sociale ne s'avère pas simplement éclipsé par l'ampleur du phénomène commercial qui l'entoure. Pour ce faire, la façon dont Larson utilise le genre de la comédie musicale pour traiter du sida est considérée sous tous les aspects suivants. D'abord, l'auteur parvient, par la déconstruction des stéréotypes liés aux personnes séropositives et du discours entourant le syndrome, à solliciter une écoute active des spectateurs, en les sensibilisant aux dangers des préjugés et de la marginalisation et en leur montrant les émotions et les conflits intérieurs vécus par les victimes. Ensuite, Larson exploite les possibilités offertes à la fois par le caractère intrinsèquement interartial de la comédie musicale et par son hybridité. Ainsi, le mélange des arts de la scène participe au dynamisme du propos, tandis que l'intégration d'autres genres éprouvés renforce la capacité de diffusion de l'œuvre. Enfin, la pièce de Larson est remise dans le contexte des conséquences et des attentes liées à la désignation d'œuvre sur le sida. Cette réflexion met en lumière la pertinence de la construction de Rent sous forme de témoignage, forme tout à fait adéquate de sensibilisation, capable de véhiculer efficacement les problématiques traitées dans la lutte contre le sida. En ce sens, il semble que la réussite commerciale de Rent ne tienne pas seulement à l'application d'une recette éprouvée, réinventée avec succès, mais bien à une indéniable capacité à opérer une conscientisation de son public à l'égard d'un syndrome qui, depuis son apparition, a transformé les relations humaines. ______________________________________________________________________________ MOTS-CLÉS DE L’AUTEUR : Rent, Jonathan Larson, comédie musicale, stéréotype, sida, marginalisation, intermédialité, interartialité, distanciation, témoignage.

This thesis investigates marginalisation in small-scale fishing communities in Chilika Lagoon engaged in customary capture fisheries. However, the Lagoon has undergone tremendous changes in recent decades, impacting the social, cultural, economic, political and environmental life, and resulting in fishers’ disconnection and marginalisation. The study explores what marginalisation looks like from the fishers’ point of view, and attempts to explain the processes and drivers responsible for change in Chilika social-ecological system, and the implications of this change, with four areas for analysis: 1) historical and political background to the processes of change in Chilika Lagoon fisheries; 2) the challenges from external drivers to fishery commons and the need to understand commons as a process; 3) impacts of social-ecological change from a livelihood perspective, including how the fishers dealt with livelihood crisis through various strategies; 4) institutional processes and their implications for fishers’ marginalization. Using evidence collected through household- and village-level surveys, combined with various qualitative and participatory research methods over 28 months, the study shows that there are two major driving forces or drivers of marginalisation: (1) the role of aquaculture development in the loss of resource access rights and the decline of local institutions, and (2) the ecological displacement and livelihood loss brought about by the opening of a new “sea mouth” connecting the Lagoon and the Bay of Bengal. There exist a paradox of the official account and fishers’ own view of marginalisation. Chilika is a clear case in which government policies have encouraged de facto privatisation. The dynamic nature and fluctuations associated with commons development make it imperative to understand commons as a process that includes commonisation and decommonisation. Out-migration has emerged as a key livelihood strategy resulting in occupational displacement for one-third of the adult fishers, and such livelihood strategies have led to their disconnection and marginalisation. The fishers’ point of view presents a more complex, multidimensional concept of marginalisation, not simply as a state of being but as a process over time, impacting social and economic conditions, political standing, and environmental health.

This thesis investigates marginalisation in small-scale fishing communities in Chilika Lagoon engaged in customary capture fisheries. However, the Lagoon has undergone tremendous changes in recent decades, impacting the social, cultural, economic, political and environmental life, and resulting in fishers’ disconnection and marginalisation. The study explores what marginalisation looks like from the fishers’ point of view, and attempts to explain the processes and drivers responsible for change in Chilika social-ecological system, and the implications of this change, with four areas for analysis: 1) historical and political background to the processes of change in Chilika Lagoon fisheries; 2) the challenges from external drivers to fishery commons and the need to understand commons as a process; 3) impacts of social-ecological change from a livelihood perspective, including how the fishers dealt with livelihood crisis through various strategies; 4) institutional processes and their implications for fishers’ marginalization. Using evidence collected through household- and village-level surveys, combined with various qualitative and participatory research methods over 28 months, the study shows that there are two major driving forces or drivers of marginalisation: (1) the role of aquaculture development in the loss of resource access rights and the decline of local institutions, and (2) the ecological displacement and livelihood loss brought about by the opening of a new “sea mouth” connecting the Lagoon and the Bay of Bengal. There exist a paradox of the official account and fishers’ own view of marginalisation. Chilika is a clear case in which government policies have encouraged de facto privatisation. The dynamic nature and fluctuations associated with commons development make it imperative to understand commons as a process that includes commonisation and decommonisation. Out-migration has emerged as a key livelihood strategy resulting in occupational displacement for one-third of the adult fishers, and such livelihood strategies have led to their disconnection and marginalisation. The fishers’ point of view presents a more complex, multidimensional concept of marginalisation, not simply as a state of being but as a process over time, impacting social and economic conditions, political standing, and environmental health.

Le spectre des neutrons prompts de fission (PFNS) est une donnée très importante pour diverses applications de la physique nucléaire. Cependant, en dehors du spectre de la fission spontanée du 252Cf, qui est reconnu comme un standard international et est utilisé pour la métrologie, le PFNS reste mal connu pour la plupart des noyaux fissionnants. En particulier, pour la fission rapide (induite par un neutron de plus de 100 keV environ), il existe peu de mesures, et les évaluations internationales présentent de fortes contradictions. De plus, il existe très peu de données sur les covariances associées aux diverses évaluations du spectre. Dans cette thèse, trois aspects de l'évaluation du PFNS sont abordés. Le premier aspect est la modélisation du spectre via le code FIFRELIN, développé au CEA Cadarache, qui simule la chaine de désexcitation des fragments de fission par émissions successives de neutrons et gammas prompts par la méthode de Monte-Carlo. Ce code a pour vocation de calculer les observables de fission dans un même calcul cohérent, à partir des distributions en masse, en énergie cinétique et en spin des fragments de fission. FIFRELIN a donc un caractère prédictif que n'ont pas les modèles analytiques utilisés pour décrire le PFNS. Une étude des paramètres de modèle influents, notamment le paramètre de densité de niveaux, est mené afin de tenter de mieux reproduire le spectre. Le deuxième aspect de la thèse concerne l'évaluation du PFNS et de sa matrice de covariance. On propose une méthodologie pour évaluer le spectre et sa matrice de covariance de manière rigoureuse, à travers l'outil CONRAD du CEA Cadarache. Ceci implique la modélisation du spectre à travers des modèles simples, notamment celui de Madland-Nix qui est le plus utilisé dans les évaluations, en ajustant les paramètres de ces modèles afin de reproduire les données expérimentales. La matrice de covariance provient de la propagation rigoureuse des sources d'incertitude qui interviennent dans le calcul. En particulier, les incertitudes systématiques liées au dispositif expérimental sont propagées par des techniques de marginalisation. La marginalisation permet de propager ces incertitudes sur le spectre calculé, en obtenant des incertitudes réalistes sans besoin d'être artificiellement rehaussées comme c'est souvent le cas dans le cadre d'ajustements bayésiens. La propagation de ces incertitudes expérimentales impacte aussi la matrice de corrélation du spectre calculé. On présente les résultats pour la fission induite par neutron thermique de l'235U et du 239Pu. Pour le modèle de Madland-Nix avec section inverse constante, l'énergie moyenne des neutrons prompts obtenue est de 1.979 MeV pour l'235U, et de 2.087 MeV pour le 239Pu. Le dernier aspect de la thèse est l'étude de l'impact du PFNS et de ses covariances sur le calcul du flux neutronique sur la cuve d'un réacteur. L'enjeu est de taille, car l'estimation de la fluence au niveau de la cuve d'un réacteur détermine l'intégrité de celle-ci, et donc la durée de vie du réacteur. On observe l'importance des termes de corrélations du spectre pour calculer notamment l'incertitude sur le flux intégré au-dessus de 1 MeV, de l'ordre de 6% (incertitude due seulement au spectre). / The prompt fission neutron spectrum (PFNS) is very important for various nuclear physics applications. Yet, except for the 252Cf spontaneous fission spectrum which is an international standard and is used for metrology purposes, the PFNS is still poorly known for most of the fissionning nuclides. In particular, few measurements exist for the fast fission spectrum (induced by a neutron whose energy exceeds about 100 keV), and the international evaluations show strong discrepancies. There are also very few data about covariances associated to the various PFNS evaluations. In this work we present three aspects of the PFNS evaluation. The first aspect is about the spectrum modeling with the FIFRELIN code, developed at CEA Cadarache, which simulates the fission fragment de-excitation by successive emissions of prompt neutrons and gammas, via the Monte-Carlo method. This code aims at calculating all fission observables in a single consistent calculation, starting from fission fragment distributions (mass, kinetic energy and spin). FIFRELIN is therefore more predictive than the analytical models used to describe the spectrum. A study of model parameters which impact the spectrum, like the fragment level density parameter, is presented in order to better reproduce the spectrum. The second aspect of this work is about the evaluation of the PFNS and its covariance matrix. We present a methodology to produce this evaluation in a rigorous way, with the CONRAD code, developed at CEA Cadarache. This implies modeling the spectrum through simple models, like the Madland-Nix model which is the most commonly used in the evaluations, by adjusting the model parameters to reproduce experimental data. The covariance matrix arises from the rigorous propagation of the sources of uncertainty involved in the calculation. In particular, the systematic uncertainties arising from the experimental set-up are propagated via a marginalization technique. The marginalization allows propagating these uncertainties on the calculated spectrum, and obtaining realistic uncertainties without having to artificially raise them, as it is sometimes necessary in Bayesian adjustments. The experimental uncertainty propagation also impacts the spectrum correlation matrix. We present the result for thermal neutron-induced fission of 235U and 239Pu. For the Madland-Nix model with constant inverse cross-section, the prompt neutron mean energy is 1.979 MeV for 235U and 2.087 MeV for 239Pu. The last aspect of this work is the calculation of the impact of the PFNS and its covariance matrix on a reactor vessel flux. This calculation is of major importance, since the vessel fluence estimation determines the vessel integrity, and therefore determines the reactor lifetime. We observe the importance of the PFNS correlation terms, to compute in particular the vessel flux uncertainty above 1 MeV, which is of the order of 6% (uncertainty only due to PFNS).

Despite of a well-established welfare state in Sweden, socio-economic and residential segregation is increasing rapidly. This has for instance been related to the neo-liberalisation of the welfare state and housing system. One institutional tool for reducing systematic inequality is the housing allowance, which specifically targets low-income households with children as well as young households without children. However, recent studies show how these groups are becoming ever more excluded, despite of the financial aid. The aim of this thesis is thus to contribute with a situated understanding of the practical accomplishment of Swedish socio-economic marginalisation in relation to housing allowance and the welfare state. This is achieved by examining naturally occurring accounts socio-economic marginalisation in 366 audio recorded phone calls to the Swedish Social Insurance Agency about housing allowance, out of which I specifically focus on accounts made by single mothers. In order to make sense of the data, I apply and introduce an ethno-intersectional approach. This entails the synthesis of the applied ethnomethodological methods Conversation Analysis, Discursive Psychology and Membership Categorisation Analysis with intersectionality as one analytical device. The results demonstrate how single-mothers intersect financial troubles, single-motherhood and ill health while expressing situated marginalisation as part of doing legitimacy work. The study also sheds light on how the application of welfare policies could partake in the systematic (re)production of structural inequalities. At large, the introduction of the ethno-intersectional approach is grounded on the theoretical interest of encouraging further action-oriented and situated explorations of the ways in which categories of inequality such as class, ethnicity and gender operate in conjunction and contribute to the generation, reinforcement or alteration of structural intersections of socio-economic marginalisation and privilege.

Notre thèse est consacrée à l’étude du Nord de l’Oriental marocain, une région frontalière. Elle traite de l’influence de cette situation sur la région. Elle est située au Nord-est du Maroc. Elle est limitrophe de l’Algérie et de l’Espagne via Melilla. Mais, elle est loin du Centre politique et économique du Maroc. Cette situation a donné à la région un caractère et une réalité spécifiques par rapport aux autres régions du pays. En effet, elle est longtemps considérée comme une marge, une région tampon, de l’antiquité jusqu’à l’arrivée de la colonisation. Pendant le protectorat, la région n’était pas un espace marginal. Cependant, la situation a changé après l’indépendance. En effet, la région est marginalisée et devient un espace excentré et périphérique par rapport au littoral atlantique suite à des politiques économiques de l’administration centrale qui a favorisé les régions « utiles ». Face à cette réalité, une grande partie de la population régionale a été obligée de recourir aux ressources extérieures à savoir la contrebande, l’émigration internationale et le tourisme maghrébin. Ces activités constituent la ressource principale pour une grande partie de la population régionale. En résulte, la vie socio-économique de la région est devenue étroitement liée à l’extérieur et au contexte géopolitique régional. Du coup, elle est exposée aux conséquences de tout changement intervenant dans les relations extérieures, soit avec les pays de l’UMA, notamment l’Algérie, soit avec ceux de l’UE. Elle vit au rythme des frontières, qui dépendant des relations politiques avec l’Algérie et l’Europe, en particulier l’Espagne, et des transferts des RME. / Our thesis focuses on the study of the North East of Morocco, a border region. It deals with the influence of this situation on the area. It is located north-east of Morocco. It borders on Algeria and Spain via Melilla. But it is far from the political and economic Center of Morocco. This gave the region a specific spirit and reality compared to other regions of the country. Indeed, it was regarded for a long time as a margin, as a buffer region, from antiquity until the arrival of colonization. During the protectorate, the region was not a marginal space.However, the situation changed after independence. Indeed, the region is marginalized and becomes an eccentric and peripheral area compared to the Atlantic coast because of economic policies of the central government which has encouraged “useful” regions. In front of this reality, most of the regions population was forced to resort to external resources such as smuggling, international migration and Maghreb tourism. These activities constitute the main resource for a large proportion of the population. Consequently socio-economic life of the region has become closely linked to the outside and to the regional geopolitical context. So, it is exposed to the consequences of any change in external relations, either with the UMA countries, including Algeria, or with those of the EU. It lives at the rhythm of the borders, which depends on political relations with Algeria and Europe, particularly Spain, and transfers of Moroccans Living Abroad.