After ten years of experience as team building consultant, a literature study, an overseas study tour and the attendance of several national and international seminars on the topic, pointed out that adventure as educational tool is founded in Human Movement Science. This emerging phenomenon draws on knowledge from several disciplines. This interdisciplinary character causes confusion and uncertainty amongst practitioners. Team building is relevant especially when people have to manage the consequences of a changing environment. Contemporary science calls for a different approach to practice which coincides with the demands of a changing business environment. Adventure experiences can be optimised to the level of an educational tool. The educational value of adventure is not a recent phenomenon but can be traced back as far as ancient Greek philosophers like Plato (427 B.c.) and Aristotle (384 B.c.). This was rediscovered by a German philosopher and educator Kurt Hahn (1886-1974) who founded Outward Bound. In 1970 Outward Bound principles were integrated within a high school Physical Education curriculum. The success of Project Adventure made adventure experiences accessible to other disciplines including organisational development through team building. Whenever adventure experiences are optimised to a learning experience it is referred to as adventure related experiential learning. This process consists of a macro and micro phase. This study argues that adventure related experiential learning has it's roots in Physical Education and therefore holds the potential to act as interdisciplinary and intradisciplinary bridge in Human Movement Science. The aim of this study is to revitalise the image of a discipline that became fragmented. / Na tien jaar praktykverwante ervaring as spanboukonsultant, 'n oorsese studiereis, literatuurstudie en die bywoning van internasionale en nasionale kongresse oor die onderhawige onderwerp, wys daarop dat avontuurgerigte spanbou binne die menslike bewegingskundige vakterrein gefundeer is. Hierdie ontluikende belangstellingsveld toon 'n sterk interdissiplinere karakter en dit veroorsaak verwarring en onsekerheid by operateurs. Veranderingsbestuur is 'n gemeenskaplike doelwit van spanbouprogramme. Die eise van 'n ontluikende wetenskapsfilosofie stem ooreen met die eise van 'n veranderende besigheidsmilieu. Avontuurbelewing kan as opvoedkundige hulpmiddel aangewend word. Die gebruik van avontuurbelewing vir opvoedkundige doeleindes kan teruggevoer word tot anti eke Griekse filosofiese sienswyses (Plato 427 v.C. en Aristoteles 384 v.C. ). Die opvoedkundige waarde van avontuurbelewing is deur 'n Duitse filosoof en opvoedkundige Kurt Hahn ( 1886-197 4) herontdek. Hahn se opvoedkundige idees is praktykgerig gelmplementeer onder die vaandel van Outward Bound. Die Outward Bound-beginsels is in 1970 met 'n liggaamlike opvoedingkurrikulum by 'n hoerskool in 1970 gelntegreer. Dit het as Project Adventure bekend gestaan. Die sukses van hierdie program het vinnig uitgebrei na ander dissiplines, onder andere korporatiewe spanbou. Wanneer avontuurbelewing tot leerervaring geoptimaliseer word, word daarna verwys as avontuurgerigte ervaringsleer. Hierdie gebeure-georienteerde proses bestaan uit 'n makro- en mikrofase. In hierdie studie word geargumenteer dat die oorsprong van avontuurgerigte ervaringsleer tot Liggaamlike Opvoeding teruggevoer kan word. Daarom kan avontuurgerigte ervaringsleer interdissipliner en intradissipliner brue slaan vanuit die Menslike Bewegingskunde. Die doel van hierdie studie is om opnuut impetus te gee aan 'n vakterrein wat gefragmenteer is. / Dissertation (MA)--University of Pretoria, 1997. / Biokinetics, Sport and Leisure Sciences / MA / Unrestricted

隱喻及轉喻被廣泛的使用在日常生活語言中。認知語言學主張：隱喻及轉喻實為人類思想與溝通的中心。因此，語言學習者必須具備覺察及理解用以表示抽象概念的隱喻及轉喻用語的能力。然而，因為語言及文化的顯著差異，第二語言學習者在發展溝通能力時，也應培養譬喻能力。 許多學者提出各式教學方法。現存文獻中，使用以概念引喻為主的教學方式，著重於點出用以對比的兩者間之相對特徵，已獲得實驗證實能提升語言學習者之覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力。然而此教學方法忽略了語言文化間的差異填補，亦輕忽了轉喻的重要性。另一方面，使用隱喻映射為主的教學方式，能藉由實體映射及知識映射有系統條理的闡述用以對比的兩者間之對照關係，不僅有助於彌補因文化不同而造成的認知差異，亦將轉喻與譬喻視為同等重要。因而以隱喻映射為主的教學方式被認為是具備潛力的教學方法，但仍缺少實證。 本論文旨在以實證方式，研究以概念引喻及以隱喻映射為主的兩種教學方式對於以英語為外語學習者在覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力之學習成效。共有115位、分別來自一般大學及科技大學之大學一年級學生參與本實驗。參與者分成兩組，分別接受兩種教學方式。實驗分兩週進行：第一週先完成電腦化的譬喻能力測驗之前測，接著進行教學，第二週則進行電腦化的譬喻能力測驗之後測。測驗之結果則經由量化及質化方式進行分析。 實驗結果發現：兩種教學方式均對於參與者在覺察能力、理解能力、及記憶力有正面成效。然而儘接受以隱喻映射為主之教學方式的參與者在覺察能力測驗中獲得顯著進步，特別是對於不包含體驗性描述的轉喻性隱喻及隱喻用語，表現尤佳。至於理解力測驗部分，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式對於解讀含有文化差異性的用語特別有助益。另一方面，相較兩組教學方式的表現成果而言，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式造成參與者的學習成果呈現較一致且穩固的成長。總而言之，以隱喻映射為主之教學方式因為提供了具結構性、系統性及邏輯性的映射過程，而促進學習者較容易覺察包含抽象概念的譬喻用語，克服因文化差異性而造成的理解困難，及獲致較穩固的學習成長。 本研究為以英語為外語學習者在學習譬喻用語—包含隱喻及轉喻—上提供了三點貢獻。其一，透過學習者培養譬喻能力之實驗成果，直接教學方式對於第二語言習得的效益再次獲得證實。其二，本實驗成果顯示：轉喻與隱喻實為密不可分的兩種概念，在教學過程中應把轉喻列為與隱喻一樣重要。其三，學習者的中介語包含了語言的普同性及差異性概念，因此應被視為連續體而非階段性結構；在設計教學教材時，應把此連續體的概念併入考量。總結而言，本實驗的成果不只在應用語言學領域提出見解，亦在第二語言習得領域有所貢獻。 / Metaphor and metonymy, pervasively found in everyday language, has been shown by cognitive linguistic research to lie at the heart of human thought and communication. Thus, ability to notice and comprehend metaphoric and metonymic expressions in expressing abstract concepts is indispensible for language users. However, since languages and cultures vary in a wide array of ways to employ metaphor and metonymy, L2 learners should develop metaphoric competence along with communicative competence. Various methods to develop L2 learners’ metaphoric competence have been proposed. In the extant literature, instruction involving conceptual metaphors (CM), which focuses on correspondences of general traits, has been proved effective in raising learners’ awareness, comprehension, and retention for Hungarian and Dutch EFL learners. Its effectiveness in Chinese speaking context is worth attested empirically. On the other hand, metaphoric mappings, which illustrate both ontological mappings and epistemic mappings of two concepts in more systematic and detailed manners, offer a promising method for EFL language learning. Hence, instruction involving metaphoric mappings (MM) is assumed to be more effective than instruction of CM. The effectiveness of such a method is also worth attested empirically. The present study aimed to test the effects of CM and MM on EFL learners’ awareness, comprehension, and retention of metaphoric and metonymic expressions with empirical evidence from a carefully-designed experiment. Finer-grained analyses on three important issues were provided: first, an in-depth examination of the intricate interaction of metonymy and metaphor as a continuum, and its influences on figurative language learning was conducted. Second, cultural universality and specificity among languages and the different degrees of difficulties for EFL learners in transferring expressions between L2 and L1 were also investigated. Third, whether structural and logical mappings between languages and cultures could assist learners to better grasp abstract concepts was examined. The participants included 115 Taiwanese EFL learners, who were freshmen of a general university and a four-year technological university. The English proficiency of the former group was high-intermediate and that of the latter was low-intermediate. The experiment contained three phases: pre-teaching, teaching and post-teaching. The participants were divided into two sub-groups: one received instruction involving CM, and the other received instruction involving MM. They were asked to complete the computerized metaphoric competence test before and after receiving instructions. The results of the tests were collected and analyzed both quantitatively and qualitatively. The results showed that both instructions could lead to better awareness, comprehension, and retention. However, only the participants of the MM groups performed significantly better in the posttest regarding the Awareness Test, especially in finding metonymic-metaphoric and metaphoric expressions that contained no bodily descriptions, the two categories which were considered the most abstract among the expressions. Regarding the Comprehension Test, MM instruction was found to be especially beneficial for the participants in interpreting expressions involving cultural-specific conceptual metaphors. Moreover, MM instruction resulted in convergent effects in the participants’ performances and led toward relatively more consistent and steady progress. To conclude, MM instruction, with its structural, systematic, and logical mapping processes, was found to be especially helpful in facilitating learners’ awareness of expressions involving more abstract concepts, overcoming difficulties caused by cultural specificity, and leading to longer-term effects on retention. The present study sheds light on the application of metaphor and metonymy to EFL teaching and learning of figurative language in three aspects. First, that explicit instructions on second language acquisition carry beneficial effects is validated for the development of learners’ metaphoric competence in the target language. In addition, metonymy is suggested as equally important as metaphor, and should be included in EFL language learning programs. Moreover, that learners’ interlanguage system is a continuum encompassing expressions with universal and specific cultural characteristics is also validated. Therefore, designs of EFL teaching materials are suggested to take such a continuum into consideration. In brief, the results of the study contribute not only to applied linguistics but also to second language acquisition.

Metaphorlc competence of learning disabled and normally achieving fifth and seventh grade male children was Investigated. Four measures were made of metaphorlc abilities. The first task was a multiple choice written test to determine the rate of metaphorlc preference. Part two consisted of children developing metaphors. Part three and four required explanations of the meaning of preferred metaphors and produced metaphors.

This thesis analyses Ingeborg Bachmann's posthumously published texts in the volume Male oscuro. Aufzeichnungen aus der Zeit der Krankheit and their relations to her literary work. Two central themes are elaborated through the analysis of the volume: illness and writing. The focus is on Bachmann's conception of writing and the issues arising from it. A comparison between Male oscuro and the author's work, the short story Undine geht and two poems Keine Delikatessen and Böhmen liegt am Meer, shows analogies on several different levels. The concept of utopia indicates continuity in Bachmann's work and the existential condition for her writing in relation to the metaphor of 'desert'. Key words: Ingeborg Bachmann, Male oscuro, illness, writing, metaphoric, contrariness, comparison, utopia

This study sought to examine the effectiveness of proposed activities for the production of texts included in the textbook Portuguese Project Pitanguá, 3rd grade, a teacher in the municipal schools of the city of Maceió, in the 2007 school year. Our hypothesis is that the effectiveness of proposed production of texts included in the textbook Portuguese, both elements present in the symbolic universe of the teacher as coming from the fundamental relationship between the operators of the language, is made present. We based this theory work in the metaphoric and metonymic processes (LEMOS, 1998, 1997, 1992) and in Figures Other (Dufour, 2000, 2005), representatives of the symbolic universe of the subject. We believe the relevance of this research is in search of trying to understand the relationships established between the proposed production of text inserted into a textbook and the teacher guides. We found that trying to put in place what the textbook suggests, and yet, modify the proposals, the teacher brought his "reading", indicating the emergence of fragments of his symbolic universe (Dufour, 2000) and the characterization of a subject which is a different value to what is proposed in the textbook, placing it as a subject with autonomy in the face of the textbook, through the presence of figures of the Other and the metaphoric and metonymic processes. / O presente trabalho pretendeu analisar a efetivação de propostas de atividades de produção de textos inseridas no livro didático de português Projeto Pitanguá, 3ª série , por uma professora da rede municipal de ensino da cidade de Maceió, no ano letivo de 2007. Partimos da hipótese de que, na efetivação de propostas de produção de textos inseridas em um livro didático de português, tanto elementos presentes no universo simbólico da professora quanto advindos da articulação entre os operadores fundamentais da linguagem, se presentificam. Fundamentamos teoricamente este trabalho nos processos metafóricos e metonímicos (LEMOS, 1998, 1997, 1992) e nas figuras de Outro (DUFOUR, 2000, 2005), representantes do universo simbólico do sujeito. Acreditamos que a relevância desta pesquisa se encontra na busca de procurar compreender as relações estabelecidas entre as propostas de produção de texto inseridas em um livro didático e a professora que as orienta. Verificamos que ao tentar colocar em funcionamento o que o livro didático sugere e, contudo, modificar as propostas, a professora trouxe sua leitura , indicando a emergência de fragmentos de seu universo simbólico (DUFOUR, 2000) bem como a caracterização de um sujeito que constitui um valor diferente para aquilo que é proposto no livro didático, colocando-a como um sujeito com autonomia diante do livro didático, através da presença das figuras de Outro e dos processos metafóricos e metonímicos.

In this thesis I have combined cognitive metaphor theory, based mostly on the theories of the book Metaphors we live by by Lakoff & Johnson, with translation theory in order to try and show how the former can contribute with useful analytical tools within me- taphor translation. More specifically, my objective is to try and show how the knowled- ge of how metaphor works according to the cognitive perspective can help translating metaphors in a way that corresponds to the recommendations established by Peter Newmark (1992), i.e. try to maintain, in as much as posible, both grammatical structure and semantics. Through a qualitative analysis I considered gramatical structure and se- mantics of three original literary metaphors taken from the swedish book ”Gösta Ber- lings saga” by Selma Lagerlöf, and their translations to spanish made by Slaby (1955). I identified how well the translations corresponded to the recommendations of Newmark, as well as suggested new translations based on the results of the cognitive analysis. As a result we could see the importance, not only of maintaining both source domain and tar- get domain of the original metaphor, or at least the epistemical correspondences in case the source domain changed, but also the ontological correspondences, the specific con- tact, that the original metaphor establishes between these two domains, for a translation that better follows the norms defined by Newmark. In other words, limited to these th- ree examples, I managed to confirm that a cognitive approach to metaphor can be very useful within translation.

Studien syftar till att undersöka sambandet mellan tal och gester utifrån lärares resonemang och språkbruk i klassrummet. Studien utgår från ett förkroppsligande perspektiv där begreppen deiktiska gester, metaforiska gester, ikoniska gester och rytmiska gester återfinns. Begreppen är hämtade från McNeills (1992) indelning av gester i olika kategorier. För insamling av data användes ostrukturerad observation och semistrukturerad intervju. Resultatet från observationerna visade att deiktiska rörelser, främst att peka mot tavlan, var den mest förekommande gesten hos lärarna och de rytmiska gesterna förekom inte alls. De näst mest förekommande gesterna var metaforiska gester som symboliserar en abstrakt idé, någon handling som utförs. Genom intervjuerna framkom att lärarna ansåg det viktigt att använda gester i undervisningen. Studiens didaktiska implikation blir att gesterna tillför liv och rörelse i undervisningen och är en bra hjälp för att förtydliga ord och begrepp både för elever med svenska som första språk och elever med svenska som andraspråk. Av studiens resultat dras slutsatsen att gester och verbal kommunikation är en användbar kombination i undervisningen för att eleverna ska ta till sig budskapet.

Cette thèse explore la manière dont le modèle de traduction institutionnelle qui s’est mis en place au sein de l’Union européenne pourrait être adapté à la situation africaine afin de résoudre ce que son auteur considère comme le principal obstacle au développement de ce continent, à savoir sa fragmentation ethnolinguistique. Rédigée en anglais et composée de six chapitres, elle se situe au croisement de la Traductologie (son principal point d’ancrage théorique), des politiques linguistiques et des théories du développement. Avec plus de deux mille langues différentes, l'Afrique constitue en effet le summum de la fragmentation ethnolinguistique. Dans la Babel africaine, les États sont constitués de différentes tribus dont les seuls liens sont les langues européennes métropolitaines fonctionnant comme langues officielles. Cependant, moins d'un quart des Africains parlent ces langues officielles. Parallèlement, l'accès aux bienfaits de l’existence – emploi, soins de santé, justice et éducation – est lié à la capacité de parler les langues officielles, ce qui entraîne l'exclusion et la non-participation d’une grande partie des populations. Les Africains n'accèdent, ne créent ni ne diffusent de connaissances dans leurs propres langues. De même, il y a très peu de fertilisation croisée des savoirs, ce qui conduit à l'existence d’innombrables Afriques parallèles et incompatibles. L'intégration régionale, proclamée urbi et orbi comme la solution à la « tragédie de la croissance africaine », est pour l’essentiel un échec. Se fondant sur l'exemple de l'Union européenne, cette thèse affirme et entend démontrer que la traduction institutionnelle, par assurance, familiarisation et hybridation, réduira la souffrance des Africains, favorisera la bonne gouvernance grâce à la participation universelle et à la responsabilisation des élites, tout en facilitant la fertilisation croisée des Afriques parallèles et incompatibles d’aujourd’hui. La traduction permet de nouer des liens affectifs positifs ; la véhicularité métaphorique de la traduction engendre une identité africaine hybride et collective qui renforcera l'intégration régionale, permettant ainsi de réduire, voire d’éliminer, la souffrance perpétuelle en Afrique. En revanche, la théorie et le modèle opérationnel de traduction institutionnelle pratiqués actuellement en Afrique, à la fois européens et pro-institutions, sont mal adaptés pour réduire la souffrance en Afrique. L’auteur propose donc une théorie et un modèle opérationnel de traduction institutionnelle pro-personnes pour l’Afrique. / This thesis is a reflection on how the European Union’s translational model could be adapted to alleviate what its author considers the main hurdle to Africa’s development, i.e. ethnolinguistic fragmentation. Written in English and comprising six chapters, it is thus at the crossroads of translation studies (its mainstay), language policy-making and development, and nurtured by works from those three disciplines. With over two thousand different languages, Africa is the epitome of ethnolinguistic fragmentation (the sheer number of languages, the proliferation of very small minority languages and the hundreds of linguistic groups that straddle two or more states), leading to low intercommunity linguistic bonding indices. In the African Babel, metropolitan European languages bind different tribes into nation states. However, less than a quarter of Africans speak the official languages. At the same time, access to the good things of life – employment, health care, justice and education – is tied to the ability to speak the official languages, leading to exclusion and non-participation. Africans do not access, create and disseminate (indigenous) knowledge in their own languages and there is very little cross-fertilisation of knowledges leading to the existence of many parallel and compartmentalised Africas. Regional integration, widely acclaimed as the solution to the African “growth tragedy”, has all but failed. Drawing from the example of the European Union, it is argued that institutional translation, through assurance, familiarization and hybridization, will make the good things of life accessible to all Africans, promote good governance through universal participation and elite accountability as well as facilitate the cross-fertilisation of compartmentalized Africas. This will reduce suffering in Africa thereby engendering positive affect, which in turn boosts the vehicularity of institutional translation. Institutional translation will ultimately help create a hybrid and collective African identity that will boost regional integration and alleviate, if not end, perennial suffering in Africa. The European institution-centred theory and practice model of institutional translation currently pertaining does not reduce suffering in Africa. An Africa-specific people-centred theory and practice model of institutional translation is outlined.

Anthologies composed for adolescent readers are rare in both Afrikaans and Dutch. These anthologies are published at quite lengthy intervals, because they are post-publications in which already published volumes are absorbed. These anthologies are, however, to an increasing extent the medium by which readers become aware of poetry and are also introduced to different poets. For that reason it can be concluded that anthologies inform poetic taste. The empathy and love towards poetry experienced by young children in both languages are gradually replaced by an apathetic attitude towards poems and even an antipathetic attitude in general during adolescence. The first reaction to poetry is usually emotional and this indicates the way for further intellectual development. When selecting poems for the adolescent reader, the different developmental aspects affecting the adolescent and his identity development must be taken into consideration. The needs of the adolescent reader must be kept in mind. Needs in reading develop as a result of general needs that should be satisfied in the first place. Should this be the case, the need for reading would develop. In this study different theoretical points of view, namely reader-response criticism, developmental psychology, general needs and reading-related needs are used to determine the representation of identity in poems. Specific theories of poetry are used as instruments in text studies and analyses with regard to representation of identity in anthologies for adolescents. Poems in Versreise (Vermaak et al.) and Met gekleurde billen zou her gelukkiger leven zijn (Van Coillie) are analysed focusing on the representation of time and space, speaker and perspective, atmosphere and metaphorical language. For the purposes of this study analyses were conducted to evaluate and interpret the representation of identity in the texts of both anthologies. The differences and similarities between the Afrikaans and Dutch poetry texts for the adolescent had to be identified. The differences were used to determine which type of text would support the Afrikaans identity, the Dutch identity or the Flemish identity. The similarities, on the other hand, were used to determine the type of text that would not appeal to the Afrikaans, Dutch or Flemish adolescents only, but to adolescents in general. In this study method-pluralism is scientifically unavoidable. Different methods were systematically combined to support the specific methods of approach. The research was done in accordance with four methods: a synopsis of existing and appropriate theory of literature and forming of theory with regard to relevant concepts and terms; the analyses of texts in two anthologies; a summary of critical opinions stated in different reviews as well as surveys and interviews based on consultations via e-mail with the different role players, i.e. the anthology composers, illustrators and publishers. / Thesis (MA (Afrikaans en Nederlands))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Metaphors and their use as a rethorical vehicle are examined. Two texts, one in Chinese and one in Swedish, are compared and analyzed to determine the extent to which the associations they create successfully capture the author's intent. Seecondarily, a shift from the assumptions that rhetorical analyses often assume (read: antiquity and Aristotles) to a more abstract internal human platform is suggested. Neurological and cognitive research is cited in support of this shift. The essay examines the question: How can metaphoric contribute to conveying the communicator's intention? By comparing metaphorics used by an historical Chinese rhetor with those used by a contemporary Swedish rhetor. In the former, Zuozhuan describes how Ji Zha commented on Shijing in 770-430 BCE. In the latter, Johan af Donner defends himself in court in 2010. The study culminates in recommendations for a more poetic approach to metaphor. / Utgångspunkten för föreliggande uppsats är att undersöka metaforik. Syftet med studien är att undersöka användningen av metaforen som ett retoriskt medel, i ett kinesiskt exempel och i ett svenskt exempel, och att jämföra dem, samt att resonera kring vilka associationsfält dessa skapar och om de är framgångsrika eller inte. Sekundärt är det också uppsatsens syfte att föreslå en förflyttning av den plattform retoriska analyser ofta utgår ifrån (läs antiken och Aristoteles) till en mer abstrakt inre mänsklig plattform. Studien tar stöd i neurologisk och kognitiv forskning i detta. Uppsatsens frågeställning är: Hur kan metaforik bidra till förståelse för avsändarens intention? Studien jämför metaforer som används av en retor i en tidig kinesisk situation; Zuozhuan berättar om hur Ji Zha kommenterade Shijing, 770-430 f.v.t. och en retor från en svensk nutida situation; Johan af Donner försvarar sig i tingsrätten 2010. Studien mynnar ut i rekommendationer till ett mer poetiskt förhållningssätt till metaforik.