In the swedish school system there are five grades: E, D, C, B and A. E, C and A all got explicit criteria for how to get his grades, however the two grades D and B don’t. They are a sort of middle grades with the criterion that the knowledge of the student for the most part fulfill the next grade. This means that a student who in some cases fulfill criteria for a C and in some cases fulfill criteria for an A gets a B. This might seem fair enough, but the problem is that teachers can’t agree on what for the most part means. Some teacher use a quantitative approach, eg. a student meet six out of ten criteria, and others use a qualitative approach, where some criteria are more important than others. This study explores this phenomena with interviews of five social science teachers and relates their answers to current research from inter alia the Swedish National Agency of Education. In this study the equivalence, the legal certanity and the equity of the middle grades is also discussed and compared with the other three grades. The results shows that different teachers use different approaches which are in line with the current research, and the conclusion of the middle grades equivalence, legal certanity and equity is that they are even less equivalent, secure and more inequity compared to the other grades.

Two main questions are addressed in this dissertation, namely: 1. What is the correct higher-order modal theory; 2. What does it take for theories to be equivalent. The whole dissertation consists of an extended argument in defence of the joint truth of two higher-order modal theories, namely, Plantingan Moderate Contingentism, a higher-order necessitist theory advocated by Plantinga (1974) and committed to the contingent being of some individuals, and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism, a higher-order necessitist theory advocated by Williamson (2013) and committed to the necessary being of every possible individual. The case for the truth of these two theories relies on defences of the following metaphysical theses: i) Thorough Serious Actualism, according to which no things could have been related and yet be nothing, ii) Higher-Order Necessitism, according to which necessarily, every higher-order entity is necessarily something. It is shown that Thorough Serious Actualism and Higher-Order Necessitism are both implicit commitments of very weak logical theories. Prima facie, Plantingan Moderate Contingentism and Williamsonian Thorough Necessitism are jointly inconsistent. The argument for their joint truth thus relies also on showing i) their equivalence, and ii) that the dispute between Plantingans and Williamsonians is merely verbal. The case for i) and ii) relies on the Synonymy Account, an account of theory equivalence developed and defended in the dissertation. According to the account, theories are equivalent just in case they have the same structure of entailments and commitments, and the occupiers of the places in that structure are the same propositions. An immediate consequence of the Synonymy Account is that proponents of synonymous theories are engaged in merely verbal disputes. The Synonymy Account is also applied to the debate between noneists and Quineans, revealing that what is in question in that debate is what are the expressive resources available to describe the world.

A tese da equivalência afirma que as condicionais indicativas e a condicional material possuem condições de verdade equivalentes, i.e., elas são falsas quando possuem a antecedente verdadeira e a consequente falsa, mas são verdadeiras nas demais circunstâncias. Essa tese tem algumas consequências contra-intuitivas. Por exemplo, ela implica que qualquer condicional com uma antecedente falsa é verdadeira. Isso é estranho, pois não é intuitivo pensar que a condicional “Se a lua é feita de queijo, então 2 +2 = 4” é verdadeira somente porque a lua não é feita de queijo. Antes, pensamos que a constituição da lua não tem qualquer relação com as verdades da aritmética. Essa perplexidade é um dos paradoxos da condicional material. No primeiro e segundo capítulos apresento as duas tentativas mais influentes de defender a tese da equivalência face aos paradoxos, as propostas de Paul Grice e Frank Jackson. Argumento que elas são incapazes de eliminar os paradoxos, pois tentam explicar a sua origem em práticas linguísticas. No terceiro capítulo eu argumento que a real causa dos aspectos paradoxais da condicional material são intuições epistêmicas e metafísicas que devem ser recusadas, pois resultam de erros de raciocínio. / The equivalence thesis states that indicative conditionals and the material conditional have the same truth conditions i.e., they are false when they have a truth antecedent and a false consequent, but true in any other circumstances. This thesis has some counterintuitive consequences. For instance, it implies that any conditional with a false antecedent is true. This is odd, for it is not intuitive to think that the conditional “If the moon is made of cheese, then 2 + 2 = 4” is true solely in virtue of the moon not being made of cheese. We would rather think that the moon’s composition and arithmetic truths aren’t related to each other. This perplexity is one of the paradoxes of the material conditional. In the first and second chapters, I present the two most influential attempts of defending the equivalence thesis from the paradoxes: the proposals of Paul Grice and Frank Jackson. I argue that the attempts are nonetheless unable of dismissing the paradoxes, because they attempt to explain their origins as stemming from linguistic practices. In the third chapter, I argue that the real cause of the paradoxical aspects of the material conditional are epistemic and metaphysical intuitions that must be refused, for they result from flawed reasoning.

The article sets out that argentinean municipalities are legally banned from raising taxes, but are allowed to levy user charges for specific services. Nevertheless, such limitation is overlooked by the municipalities by means of introducing the “ability top ay” principle within the structure of the taxable base of said user charges. The author concludes that such mechanism distorts the user charge, altering its essence, with the result of transforming it into a mere tax, with the resulting violation of the current legislation.The author critically reviews argentinean case law that has given grounds to such a fiscal deviation and –in order to make his point- compares it with jurisprudence registered on this issue by the Supreme Courts of Peru, Brazil and Uruguay. Such comparison evidences that, if argentinean courts were to apply the criteria said of those Supreme Courts, almost every user charge in Argentina would have to be declared unconstitutional. / El artículo expone que los municipios argentinos están legalmente vedados de cobrar impuestos, viendo limitado su poder tributario al cobro de tasas. Sin embargo, en la práctica eluden esa prohibición mediante la maniobra de introducir en su base imponible criterios puros de capacidad contributiva (vgr. el monto de ventas), con total prescindencia del costo de los servicios retribuidos.El autor reseña críticamente la jurisprudencia de los tribunales argentinos, los cuales han convalidado el uso del principio de capacidad contributiva en materia de tasas. También efectúa una comparación con el tratamiento que esta cuestión ha tenido en los máximos tribunales de Perú, Brasil y Uruguay. Dicha comparación deja en evidencia que, de aplicarse en Argentina los criterios uniformemente sostenidos por los tribunales de estos tres países, una parte sustancial de las tasas hoy vigentes en este último país debería ser declarada inconstitucional.

2/2 Abstract: In the present work we deal with a specific class of factors with the assumed potential to determine (refine) the preferred lexical meaning in case of ambiguity. A required feature of these factors is that they don't depend on the nature of any particular communication situation, but should be exclusively related to the person of the speaker or listener and some of his personality, sociolinguistics and other characteristics, i.e. traditional factors such as context, time-space characteristics, are deliberately excluded. The preferred lexical meaning was studied by means of a questionnaire survey in the sample of respondents. The analysed data were the initial immediate associations reported by the respondents in the association test for each of the thirty selected ambiguous words. The respondent was confronted with individual test terms in isolation outside of any context or specific communication situation. Under these assumptions, the ability of selected respondents' characteristics such as gender, age, education, geographical area of their life, profession or hobbies of the respondent can be examined to what extent they can be the explanatory factors of the lexical meaning of the first choice in the test expressions. In addition to the specific findings concerning the factors of lexical...

Dans un contexte industriel où l’utilisation de matériaux composites s’est généralisée jusqu’à atteindre les structures primaires, la menace foudre se révèle être une problématique majeure.Avec un coup de foudre en moyenne par an et par avion en service, les nouvelles structures composites, moins bonnes conductrices que leurs prédécesseurs en métal, doivent être protégées. Les protections mises en œuvre par les fabricants et les équipementiers sont des couches minces ajoutées à l’empilement composite, initialement choisi pour le compromis optimal qu’il offre entre résistance et légèreté. L’optimisation et le conseil concernant les protections foudre deviennent alors un enjeu industriel d’importance. Dans ce cadre, le travail de thèse a porté sur l’étude et la compréhension des dommages issus des chocs foudre sur des structures protégées dans le but ultérieur d’optimiser ou de créer des protections adaptées.Nous proposons une méthode qui permet de déterminer les caractéristiques d’un impact mécanique sur une plaque composite nue, équivalent à un choc foudre sur une structure protégée. Une campagne d’essais d’impacts avec un canon du laboratoire couplé à une campagne numérique ont permis de conclure que la stratégie et la méthode d’équivalence sont fondées, et permettent de prendre en compte les paramètres constitutifs de la protection de surface. Les modèles proposés permettront d’aborder les questions de conception des protections. / In an industrial context where more and more composite materials are integrated into primary structures, the lightning threat has become a major issue for aircraft manufacturers. As lightning strikes in service airplane about once a year, the new composite structures, with a lower electrical conductivity than their metallic predecessors, must be protected. The protections already integrated by manufacturers are mainly made of expanded metallic foil layered above the composite lay-up, thus adding weight on the low density structures and reducing the gain of weight. The optimization of such structures and counsel concerning lightning protection become a major industrial stake. In the scope of the PhD work, the proposed work focused on the study of the damage mechanisms due to lightning strikes on protected composite panels in order to optimize or offer adequate protections against this threat. A methodology is proposed to determine a mechanical impact on a bare composite plate equivalent to a protected and even painted structure submitted to a lightning impact. An experimental campaign of mechanical impacts using a canon gas gun coupled to a numerical plan is led and allows concluding on the strategy and its validity by taking into account the state surface of the lightning samples.

A tese da equivalência afirma que as condicionais indicativas e a condicional material possuem condições de verdade equivalentes, i.e., elas são falsas quando possuem a antecedente verdadeira e a consequente falsa, mas são verdadeiras nas demais circunstâncias. Essa tese tem algumas consequências contra-intuitivas. Por exemplo, ela implica que qualquer condicional com uma antecedente falsa é verdadeira. Isso é estranho, pois não é intuitivo pensar que a condicional “Se a lua é feita de queijo, então 2 +2 = 4” é verdadeira somente porque a lua não é feita de queijo. Antes, pensamos que a constituição da lua não tem qualquer relação com as verdades da aritmética. Essa perplexidade é um dos paradoxos da condicional material. No primeiro e segundo capítulos apresento as duas tentativas mais influentes de defender a tese da equivalência face aos paradoxos, as propostas de Paul Grice e Frank Jackson. Argumento que elas são incapazes de eliminar os paradoxos, pois tentam explicar a sua origem em práticas linguísticas. No terceiro capítulo eu argumento que a real causa dos aspectos paradoxais da condicional material são intuições epistêmicas e metafísicas que devem ser recusadas, pois resultam de erros de raciocínio. / The equivalence thesis states that indicative conditionals and the material conditional have the same truth conditions i.e., they are false when they have a truth antecedent and a false consequent, but true in any other circumstances. This thesis has some counterintuitive consequences. For instance, it implies that any conditional with a false antecedent is true. This is odd, for it is not intuitive to think that the conditional “If the moon is made of cheese, then 2 + 2 = 4” is true solely in virtue of the moon not being made of cheese. We would rather think that the moon’s composition and arithmetic truths aren’t related to each other. This perplexity is one of the paradoxes of the material conditional. In the first and second chapters, I present the two most influential attempts of defending the equivalence thesis from the paradoxes: the proposals of Paul Grice and Frank Jackson. I argue that the attempts are nonetheless unable of dismissing the paradoxes, because they attempt to explain their origins as stemming from linguistic practices. In the third chapter, I argue that the real cause of the paradoxical aspects of the material conditional are epistemic and metaphysical intuitions that must be refused, for they result from flawed reasoning.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:16:52Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 5357.pdf: 11039751 bytes, checksum: 1534d2a0d9db4a8e8f0feb6c57f55080 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2013-08-01 / Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos / The simultaneously incidence of two light beams on one or more atoms causes destructive interference of these beams in atomic states causing cancellation of the absorption of one of the incident beams and this phenomenon is called Electromagnetically Induced Transparency (EIT). The main objective of this work is to show that the Electromagnetically Induced Transparency, which is usually studied in the quantum context, can be modeled classically as a function of coupled harmonic oscillators subject to an external force and dissipation. To will establish the classical equivalence, it will be presented the theory of the EIT in diferent quantum systems and also the theory of classic harmonic oscillators. Analogies will be performed comparing the classical and quantum equations of motion obtained for each scheme. For this, we perform the equivalence of EIT in quantum systems as atoms in three levels in Λ configuration, two-level atoms plus a cavity mode and the cavity optomechanics with the classical system of two coupled harmonics oscillator forced and damped. We also analyze the equivalence of two diferent quantum systems: three level atoms plus one cavity mode and four levels atoms in free space with a classical system composed by three coupled harmonic oscilators, forced and damped, in diferent configurations. / A incidência simultânea de dois feixes luminosos em um ou mais átomos provoca a interferência destrutiva desses feixes em um dos estados atômicos causando o cancelamento da absorção de um dos feixes incidentes e esse fenômeno é denominado Transparência Eletromagneticamente Induzida (\Electromagnetically Induced Transparency", EIT). O objetivo principal deste trabalho é mostrar que a Transparência Eletromagneticamente Induzida, que é normalmente estudada no contexto quântico, pode ser modelada classicamente em função de osciladores harmônicos amortecidos forçados e acoplados. Para que a equivalência clássica seja bem fundamentada, será apresentada a teoria da EIT em diversos sistemas quânticos e também a teoria dos osciladores harmônicos clássicos. As equivalências serão realizadas comparando as equações de movimento clássicas e quânticas obtidas para cada regime. Para isso, vamos realizar a equivalência da EIT em sistemas quânticos de átomos de três níveis em configuração Λ, dois níveis atômicos mais um modo da cavidade e a optomecânica de cavidades com o sistema clássico de dois osciladores harmônicos amortecidos forçados e acoplados. Logo após, será analisada a equivalência de dois sistemas quânticos compostos por átomos de três níveis mais um modo da cavidade e átomos de quatro níveis com os sistemas clássicos de três osciladores harmônicos amortecidos forçados e acoplados em diferentes configurações.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:25:11Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 3941.pdf: 2100644 bytes, checksum: 8ef9d03388c4d4998dee22f4db32f5fc (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-04-24 / The rubber industry is a sector that contributes significantly with the national economy due to the fact that it is part of a wide range of products. Therefore, we verified the need of a terminological systematization in this field. Based on this fact, our objective is to elaborate a monolingual vocabulary (glossary) of rubber goods in the automotive sector, with English equivalences. This paper is supported by the Communicative Terminology Theory proposed by Maria Tereza Cabré. Under a communicative perspective, the methodology of this research contemplated the compilation of a corpus as well as the utilization of a computer tool, the Unitex, in order to manage the texts that make part of this corpus. We extracted words (semi automatically) which we considered a term candidate, inserted them in the ontology, elaborated and filled out the terminology forms which were used as a term dossier; elaborated a text definition basis which was constantly fed with new information and sequentially we wrote the definitions. The definition texts of the rubber vocabulary (glossary) are based on the researches at Terminology Group Studies department GETerm. The microstructure - headword - contemplates systematic (obligatory) and asystematic (non obligatory) information that facilitates the peoples use. Concerning the vocabulary/ glossary microstructure we followed the TERMICAT s (1990) proposal, which aims the specialized communication. / A indústria de artefatos de borracha é um setor que contribui significativamente com a economia do país, pois faz parte de uma enorme gama de produtos e bens de consumo. No entanto, constatamos a necessidade de sistematizar a terminologia dessa área com obras terminográficas que atendam às necessidades comunicativas de seus usuários. Nesse sentido, nosso objetivo foi elaborar um vocabulário monolíngue acerca da terminologia dos artefatos de borracha particularmente do setor automotivo, com equivalências em inglês. A presente pesquisa está amparada na Teoria Comunicativa da Terminologia (TCT), proposta por Maria Tereza Cabré. Sob uma perspectiva comunicativa, a metodologia da pesquisa contemplou a compilação de um corpus e a utilização de uma ferramenta computacional, o Unitex, para manipulação dos textos que compõem o corpus. Procedemos à extração semiautomática de candidatos a termos, inserimos os temos no mapa conceitual; elaboramos e preenchemos fichas terminológicas que nos serviu como um dossiê dos termos; elaboramos e alimentamos uma base definicional que contribuiu para a redação das definições terminológicas (DT) e na sequência, elaboramos as definições. Os textos definitórios que compõem o vocabulário se pautaram nos procedimentos utilizados pelos pesquisadores do Grupo de Estudos Terminológicos GETerm. A microestrutura do conjunto vocabulário contempla informações sistemáticas (obrigatórias em todos os verbetes) e assistemáticas (informações não obrigatórias) de forma a facilitar a consulta do usuário. Quanto à macroestrutura, seguimos a sugestão do TERMCAT (1990), o qual visa à melhoria da comunicação especializada.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-06-02T20:30:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 4399.pdf: 4310129 bytes, checksum: 97e191ba4f51f4a17a1e65a28b3ddacb (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-03-02 / Universidade Federal de Sao Carlos / Stimulus equivalence research uses matching-to-sample (MTS) tasks to establish conditional stimulus relations. Using these tasks to teach language and academic repertoires, such as reading, in applied settings is a current issue. This paper investigated different methods in the development of an approach to teach individuals on the use of automated MTS tasks to teach reading through two studies. In Study 1, four participants were assessed on the extent to which whether, after being taught to: (1) arrange, and (2) apply MTS tasks comprising AB relation (dictated words-pictures); and 3) analyze student data report using three words, they would show repertoire generalization to novel words. Teaching comprised demonstration and instruction to follow demonstration. During tests, novel words were used. Results showed that all participants learned to implement computerized MTS tasks and showed repertoire generalization. In Study 2, two packages a manual and manual + CAPSI were compared to teach individuals to conduct MTS training to teach reading. Participants were four university students randomly assigned to either control or experimental groups, two in each group. During baseline participants were assessed in their skills in: (1) arranging four MTS tasks AB (dictated wordspictures), AC (dictated words-printed words), BC (pictures-printed words), and CB (printed words-picttures) using the words bed, bee, and cat; (2) evaluating reading repertoires; (3) conducting teaching sessions using AB and AC MTS tasks; and (4) conducting testing sessions using BC and CB tasks. During teaching the participants in the control group were given a manual on the use of MTS training to teach reading and the participants were given the manual and wrote online tests on CAPSI. All the participants were given three weeks to complete the VIII teaching in the place of their choosing. The post-training was conducted as described in baseline. Baseline and post-training combined scores for control and experimental groups were 72.5% and 100%, and 72.7% and 95%, respectively. Statistical analysis showed that the improvement from baseline to post-training for both groups was significant; however, the difference between posttraining performances for the control and experimental groups was not significant. Taken together, the results of studies 1 and 2 suggest that the methods that were investigated are promising in the transfer of knowledge from basic research to applied educational settings such as classroom and to be delivered to teachers working with children with reading learning difficulties. / Educação do campo; Educação no campo; Educação em assentamentos Pesquisas em equivalência de estímulos utilizam tarefas de matching-to-sample (MTS) para produzir relações condicionais entre estímulos. Atualmente, o uso de tais tarefas no ensino de linguagem e repertórios acadêmicos, como leitura, em ambientes aplicados é uma realidade. Este trabalho investigou diferentes métodos no desenvolvimento de uma abordagem para ensinar indivíduos a implementar tarefas de MTS computadorizadas no ensino de leitura por meio de dois estudos. O Estudo 1 avaliou se quatro universitárias, após serem ensinadas a: (1) elaborar, (2) aplicar tarefas de MTS envolvendo a relação AB (palavra ditada-figura); e (3) analisar relatório de desempenho, usando três palavras, apresentariam generalização de repertório para novas palavras. O ensino compreendeu demonstração e instrução para seguir demonstração. Nos testes, utilizaram-se novas palavras. De acordo com os resultados, todas as participantes aprenderam a implementar tarefas de MTS computadorizadas e apresentaram generalização de repertório. No Estudo 2, dois pacotes manual e manual + CAPSI foram comparados para ensinar universitários a conduzir o ensino de MTS para leitura. Participaram da pesquisa quatro estudantes universitárias, as quais foram aleatoriamente divididas em grupos controle e experimental, duas em cada grupo. Durante a linha de base, avaliou-se acurácia das participantes quanto a: (1) criar quatro tarefas de MTS envolvendo as relações AB (palavras ditadas-figuras), AC (palavras ditadas-palavras impressas), BC (figuras- palavras impressas) e CB (palavras impressas-figuras), com as palavras bed, bee, e cat; (2) avaliar repertório de leitura; (3) conduzir sessões de ensino das relações AB e AC; e (4) conduzir sessões de teste das relações BC e CB. Durante o ensino, as participantes do grupo controle receberam um manual sobre a VI implementação de tarefas de MTS computadorizadas. As participantes do grupo experimental receberam o manual e foram solicitadas a realizar testes online no CAPSI. Todas as participantes tiveram três semanas para completar o ensino em local de sua preferência. As médias combinadas de acurácia no desempenho para os grupos controle e experimental durante a linha de base e pós-ensino foram 72.5% e 100%, e 72.7% e 95%, respectivamente. A análise estatística dos dados mostrou que as diferenças nos desempenhos dos dois grupos entre a linha de base e o pós-ensino foram significantes. As diferenças entre os desempenhos dos grupos experimental e controle entre a linha de base e o pós-ensino, no entanto, não foram significantes. Os dados dos dois estudos em conjunto sugerem que os métodos investigados no presente estudo representam perspectivas promissoras na transposição do conhecimento derivado das pesquisas em equivalência de estímulos para o seu uso em ambientes educacionais aplicados, como salas de aula, por professores que estão em atendimento direto a crianças com dificuldades em leitura.